Religion & Philosophy

Jainism  

Spread 

1. To spread his teaching, Mahavira organized an order of followers which included both men and women.  
2. It spread into Karnataka via CGM and the great Magadhan famine which lasted 12 years.  
3. Jainism spread to Odisha in 4 cent BC and got the patronage of King Kharvela in 1 cent BC.
4. In TN, it spread in 2-1 cent BC and later it penetrated Malwa, Gujarat and Rajasthan. 
5. In the early medieval age, it was finished from S India under attack from the bhakti saints.

Impact

Languages  

1. They used Prakrit language out of which many regional languages grew specially Shauraseni from which modern Marathi came up. 
2. Jainas composed earliest works in Apbhramsha and prepared its grammar.
3. They also contributed to the growth of Kannada

Sculpture  

1. Initially they, like Buddhism, didn't worship idols. But later on they too began to construct idols and thus contributed to sculpture.  

Architecture

1. Jaina caves at Udaigiri and Khandgiri were cut in Puri, Odisha. These were simple caves reflecting the asceticism of Jina order. But the entrances were carved. 

Social  

1. It was a first serious challenge to the brahmanical religion and evils of varna system. 

Buddhism  

Causes of Spread (apart from the common ones with Jainism)   

1. Buddhism found ready audience in non-Vedic lands and specially Magadha which was looked down upon in the brahmanical religion.
2. It used Pali + the personality of Buddha + clear distinction from brahmanical religion.
3. Buddhist sangha was very organized and got state patronage.
4. It was pragmatic and protected the interests of its powerful target groups. Eg. Debtors and slaves cannot enter sangha to protect the interests of money lenders &  slave owners. It respected political authority.  

Buddhism and Gana Sanghas

1. It is known that Buddhism was close to Gana Sangha in its philosophy of kingship (social contract), customs etc. In terms of organization as well it was close to the gana sangha model. Regular fortnightly meetings were held, the views of monks were heard and decisions arrived at in accordance with the rules of the sangha. This is in sharp contrast with the monarchical rule. Periodic councils were held - first @ Rajgriha, second @ Vaishali and 3rd @ PP. 4th was held by Kanishka @ Kashmir.

Similarities between Buddhism and Brahmanical Religion         

1. Both didn't advocate production and labor rather lived on alms.
2. Both emphasized carrying out family obligations, protecting private property and respecting the political authority. 
3. Bot supported social order based on classes - for Buddhists, it was based on action and for Brahmans, it was based on birth. 
4. In reality, the status of shudras didn't change materially even in Buddhism. Although they were admitted into sangha, their position continued to be low. We hear of Buddha going into a brahmana assembly, a kshatriya assembly, a vaishya assembly but not a shudra assembly. 

Buddhism as a Revolution Against the Class Based Order

1. Buddhism was more socially inclusive than brahmanical, but it didn't really change much at the ground. Buddhist texts and order are not free from bias.
2. Buddha and his monks broke the tradition of restrictions on taking food. They could take food from anybody.
3. Buddhism also rejects superiority of brahmans and places kshatriyas on top. But, Buddhist texts were biased against the lower classes.
4. Soldiers had to seek king's permission, slaves their master's permission and debtors had to pay off their debts before joining sangha.
5. Varna and jati were supposed to be immaterial in attaining moksha but buddhist sangha had clear dominance of upper classes like brahmans, kshatriyas and gahapatis.
6. It uses the word brahmana for someone who has led an exemplary life. Brahmans joining the sangha were considered to be a great asset and mentioned in literature.     

Dhamma

1. Asoka clearly made a distinction between his personal belief in Buddhism and obligations as a king to ensure that all religions are respected. Thus we find that his inscriptions are of 2 kinds. The smaller group is addressed to the sangha as a lay upasaka king. Here he speaks of his belief in Buddhism, relationship with sangha and even shows a hint of intolerance when he proclaims that the dissident monks and nuns should be expelled from the sangha. In his larger set of inscriptions he is seen as a king. These describe his dhamma and show amazing level of tolerance.
2. Some historians have interpreted dhamma as Buddhism arguing Asoka wanted to spread Buddhism among all his subjects. But dhamma was not Buddhism. The description of dhamma in the edicts clearly shows that it was a broader set of ethics intended to explore ways of governance and to reduce social conflicts. Asokan empire consisted not of a monolithic society but a multitude of societies. There were Hellenistic society in NW with division between slaves and masters, there was the varna based society in the plains, there was the clan based society in the forests. Dhamma was an attempt to increase tolerance and to bring harmony. There were different religions, different practices. Dhamma was merely a set of unifying principles.
3. Dhamma principles were set such that they could be embraced by any group (much like Sulh-i-Kul). It was not defined in terms of rigid rules but just broad principles and the implementation was left vague so that it could be moulded by each group according to their own needs while still satisfying the overarching principle.

Universities

Nalanda University

1. Sources: We get a comprehensive account of Nalanda university from Huen Tsang which also gives invaluable information about the location of other buddhist shrines in India. I - Tsing studied at Nalanda and left an account of his travels including his stay @ Nalanda. 
2. Patrons: It appears that Kumargupta built the first monastery at Nalanda. Its site was not too far nor too close to the city. Hence it was selected as an ideal centre for the pursuit of Buddhist studies by monks. Subsequent later Gupta kings made additions and expansions to the buildings. Even Harsha built the a monastery here and surrounded the university buildings with a high wall. 
3. Scale: In the 10th century, there were over 10,000 resident students, 1500 teachers and 1500 workers here. They came from all parts of India and foreign lands (like Tibet, China, Japan, Korea, Sumatra, Java and Sri Lanka). Its chancellorship was reserved for India's foremost buddhist scholar.  
4. Curriculum: Admission to Nalanda was by oral examination. This was done by a professor at the entrance hall. He was called Dvara Pandita. Proficiency in Sanskrit was necessary, as it was the medium of instruction. All Chinese monks going to India for higher studies in Buddhism had to go to Java and brush up their Sanskrit. The standards required were high. Casts, creed and nationality were no barriers in keeping with the Buddhist spirit. The study of Mahayana was compulsory for Buddhists. One could also study the doctrines of 18 other Buddhist sects. One could also study secular subjects like science, medicine, astrology, fine-arts, literature etc. The six systems of Hindu philosophy were also taught. The observatory of the university was situated in a very tall building. Lectures, debates and discussions were part of the educational curriculum. There were three large libraries. 
5. Impact: A vast amount of what came to comprise Tibetan Buddhism, both its Mahayana and Vajrayan traditions, stems from the late (9th–12th century) Nalanda teachers and traditions. Other forms of Buddhism, such as the Mahayana Buddhism followed in Vietnam, China, Korea and Japan, flourished within the walls of the ancient university. A number of scholars have associated some Mahayana texts of SE and east Asia with the Buddhist tradition at Nālandā.

Vikramshila

1. Sources: Vikramshila is known to us mainly through Tibetan sources, especially the writings of Tāranātha, the Tibetan monk historian of 16th-17th Century AD.
2. Patrons: It is situated in Antichak, Bhagalpur. It was said to be a sister institution of Nalanda and was said to have been founded under the patronage of king Dharmpala. Under the Pala kings it rose and rivaled Nalanda and bade well to outshine it. 
3. Scale and organization: There were six entrances to this building and near each entrance was a monastery for resident monks about 150 teachers were accommodated in each monastery. It was managed by a staff of Professors. Adhyaksha > Dvara pandit > Maha Pandit > Pandit > Acharya > monks.
4. Curriculum: There were six Dvara Pandits. Here too high standards were maintained. The curriculum of studies was similar to that of Nalanda. Here preference was given to the Tantric form of Buddhism.
5. Influence: Sri Gnana was the most famous scholar of Vikramshila. His fame spread far and wide as the propagator of Buddhism in Tibet Tibetans hold his name in the highest veneration. When he was here, he was invited to teach and propagate Buddhism in Tibet. He postponed it for some time till he completed his work here and then undertook the task. 

Vallabhi

1. Sources: Huen Tsang and Ip Tsing are our sources.
2. Patrons: The Maitraka kings who ruled Western India constructed a monastery at Vallabhi (their capital). 
3. Scale and organization: There were about 100 monasteries with about 6,000 Buddhist monks. I-Tsing records that foreign students were found at Vallabhi. They come from many lands far and near. There was a large library.  
4. Curriculum: While Nalanda was the centre for Mahayana Buddhism, Vallabhi achieved fame as the centre for Hinayana Buddhism. Most of the monks belong to the Sammitiya sect and precedence was given to Sammitiya doctrines at this university. The course of studies included comparative religion. The six systems of Hindu philosophy and various other schools of Buddhism, Politics, Law, Agriculture, Economics also formed a part of the curriculum.

Mahayana        

Nature & Character of the Split

1. The emergence of Mahayana didn't lead to a sudden split in the sangha.
2. It didn't emerge out of a difference in the devotional practices of the common followers. It emerged out of a difference in ideas and practices of a group of monks. These differences didn't force the monks of Mahayana to live separately from the Hinayana monks immediately given the centrality of sangha rules which governed the life in monasteries. This is confirmed by the Chinese travelers who saw both monks living together.

Differences with Hinayana

1. The changes can be traced over a period of time. With the increase in the number of followers in the lay community (upasaks) the monks may have been called upon to perform life cycle rituals linked to birth, death, marriage etc. This may have introduced a larger number of rituals than originally introduced and a process of gradual change was set into motion. Places of worship like small stupas (derived from ancestor worship in chalcolithic / megalithic cultures) gave way to more elaborate procedures.
2. Hinayana believes in arhat philosophy i.e. follow Buddha's path to attain nibbana or become an arhat. Mahayana says follow Buddha's path to attain buddhahood (great wisdom), but don't attain nibbana, rather become a bodhisattva and help others in attaining nibbana.  
3. Mahayana worshipped Buddha's and bodhisattvas' images while Hinayana didn't. Earlier Buddhism held veneration of stupas and relics meritorious but didn't consider it essential. Mahayana laid great emphasis on devotion to Buddha and bodhisattvas mainly in the form of image worship.
4. Hinayana believed Buddha attained nibbana and was freed from the cycle of samsara. Mahayana on the other hand proclaimed that he didn't free himself from the cycle of samsara but remained between nibbana and samsara. 
5. Hinayana believed there was only one Buddha and next one would come only when the teachings of the previous ones would die out. Mahayana instead propagated theory of multiple buddhas and bodhisattvas. 
6. Mahayana saw progressive decline of women in the monastic order. In fact, it was widely held that women can't attain nibbana. They had to be reborn as males or had to undergo sex change. 
7. While Hinayana flourished in SL, Myanmar and ASEAN, Mahayana flourished in central Asia, Tibet, China and Japan.

Post Mauryan Age

1. Monasteries got wealthy and monks could have a comfortable life now inside the monastery. Thus buddhism began to draw away from the people which contributed in the ultimate decline.
2. They also encouraged the donations to sangha and monasteries as they proclaimed that merit can also be transferred from one person to another by the act of donation.

Factors Responsible for the Rise  

1. The growth of secondary activities and growing prosperity: The Buddhist sangha and monasteries could no longer afford to lose the donations from the growing body of artisans and merchants because if they did so, they would lose out to other religion. Orthodox Buddhism didn't allow it.
2. The great influx of foreigners: These foreigners didn't have a strong prior culture and hence were fertile targets for conversion. They were also the new rulers, hence in order to grow, Buddhism had to modify itself to accept them and their practices like eating non-vegetarian food. 
3. Under the influence of prosperity and the need to convert, elaborate images of Buddha were made and worshipped which inspired awe and the concept was easier to understand. 
4. The rise of the Mahayana is a reflection of the growing popularity of the bhakti sentiment in the age. Devotion to the god was getting popular at the cost of quest for attainment of true knowledge. Mahayana practices clearly adopted bhakti principles. By worshipping Buddha and looking upon him as a benevolent god, the bhaktas could hope for his grace and attainment of salvation.

Impact of Rise of Mahayana  

Economic Impact  

1. Mahayana was more pragmatic religion and was more suited to the needs of the age. It allowed for acceptance of grants in form of gold and silver. 
2. Many monasteries / universities were setup which became great consumer of items and thousands of pupils and monks resided there. So settlements developed around them to supply.  
3. They also became tourist centers hence promoted urbanization. 

Cultural Impact

1. It changed the way commons worshipped. Earlier relics of Buddha, his symbols were worshipped. Now his images were built and worshipped.  
2. It aided in the growth of Bhakti.
3. There was great amount of cultural exchange with other religions. 
4. Led to development of sculpture. Initially Gandhara, Mathura, Amaravati schools, relief sculpture, later images of Tara.  
5. Led to development of Sanskrit literature. 
6. In the early-medieval period, it led to the ascendancy of Buddhist tantricism. Buddha and his consort Tara were important objects in the Tantric school. 

Vaishnavism / Bhagwatism   

Evolution of Bhagwatism   

1. Assimilation of Non-Vedic Traditions: Vishnu was a minor god in Vedic times who represented sun and the fertility cult. By 2nd cent BC, he merged with a god called Narayan. Narayan was a non-Vedic tribal god and was also called bhagvat and his followers were called bhagvatas. Later the Vishnu-Narayan god was associated with Krishna - a legendary hero of Vrishni tribe in W India. The epic of Mahabharata was recast to show Krishna as Vishnu. These three streams together led to the birth of Bhagwatism / Vaishnavism by 200 BC.   
2. Changes into Brahmanism: Many new doctrines like the doctrines of avatars, holy trinity, preservation of social order and practices like devotion, personal worship, pilgrimage etc. came into being to adapt brahmanism to the changing needs. By the early medieval age, the doctrines of avatars was firmly in place. Pantheons of gods were built like Vishnu-Lakshmi-Shesnag etc. By 12th century, the character of Radha came up perhaps as an influence of Bhakti movement.   
3. Interactions with Major Traditions: These religions interacted and borrowed liberally from each other. Idol worship was borrowed from Jainism and Buddhism. Shrines of various religions shared common pool of auspicious symbols, ornamentation, sculpture styles etc. Ahimsa became a major theme in Vaishnavism. Now even in sacrifices no animals were killed and people increasingly took to vegetarian food. Even Buddha and Jain tirthankara Rishabh began to be considered as Vishnu avatars by the early-medieval age.   
4. Interaction with Minor Traditions: The span of Hinduism was grown by assimilating the various minor traditions in its fold. The gods were usually assimilated as minor gods or assistants / gatekeepers to Vishnu while the religious practices were inculcated in a slightly modified form. There were some traditions, however, particularly the Tantric traditions which were outrightly criticized by the mainstream religion and shunned.      
5. Royal Patronage: Association with Vishnu became a major source of royal legitimacy. The kings began to use emblems associated with him (garuda seal of Guptas, boar emblem of Chalukyas), began to call themselves 'the foremost worshipper' (param-bhagvata by CG II), donate land to Vishnu temples (Bhitari inscription of Skandagupta). 
6. Construction of Temples: Vishnu temples had begun to be created from Mauryan age (Nagari in Chittorgarh). In post-Mauryan age, the temples increased but were still built of mud and wood super-structure and had oblong and apsidal architectures (e.g..?). In Gupta age, many temples came up - the famous being Deogarh, Bhitari etc. These temples and shrines shared space and themes with other religions as well.  

The Concept of Bhakti  

1. The tribal god, Bhagvat, was thought to be the divine counterpart of the tribal chief. Just as the tribal chief received gifts from his kinsmen and distributed it among the tribals, the god too bestowed good fortune on his bhaktas on receiving their love and devotion.   
2. Bhakti means offering loyalty and devotion to God. Ahimsa was a part of it as non-violence was associated with the fertility cult of the Vedic god Vishnu. People began to take only vegetarian food.

Reasons for its Spread  

1. The concept of Ahimsa was suited to the need of the age in order to protect animal wealth from sacrifices for agriculture.
2. The new religion was liberal enough to offer space to foreigners and women, vaishyas, shudras, merchants etc. Anybody could seek refuge in the god. 
3. It rejected austerities and the priestly domination as well. It was easy enough to be practiced by the masses. 
4. The new religion received patronage from many kings both in N and S India. 

Other Religions

Harappan Religion  

1. Mother goddesses - two types. Slim type and pregnant type. Both indicate fertility beliefs. Phallus. Male and female fertility organs.
2. Pipal tree and the tree spirit shown in some seals. Bulls and is associated with Nandi and similarly the Siva. Instead of imposing the later Gods on such evidences it is more appropriate to see them as a contributory factor in the evolution of later concepts.
3. Animal sacrifice indicated by a seal. Another seal indicates human sacrifice. Kalibangan fire altars (though they could equally well be hearths). Temples were absent.       

Harappan Burials

1. There is a clear absence of large monumental burials indicating absence of kings.
2. The burials of Harappans are simple with fewer grave goods. Only simple pottery of daily use and some scattered objects are kept indicating Harappans didn't expect the dead to have huge demand and also such occasions were not a means of wealth and social status demonstrations.
3. Even after the decline of Harappan civilization, Harappan style burials continued (specially in H cemetery culture) indicating their contribution.

Sangam Age Religion in S India

1. It was strongly animistic in character. Hero stones, trees, water, stars etc. were worshipped as symbols of greater forces. These practices continued for a long time.
2. The Sangam literature tells us Madurai was a city of temples even in Sangam age. Some N Indian deities began to be worshipped as well. 

Yaksha and Yakshini / Naga and Nagini

1. Yakshas were initially associated with nature and wealth and yakshis with fertility. They were benevolent powerful deities who were worshipped with offerings and devotion.
2. But later they were absorbed in dominant religions and demonized by them and dismissed as localized rural deities. 
3. But historical evidence shows otherwise. The colossal image of yaksha @ Parkham (Mathura) shows it was an urban work meant for large number of people. It was specially worshipped by traders indicating association of yaksha with wealth. Similarly the yakshas of Besnagar and Pawaya hold a money bag in their hands. Female deities are still worshipped today for child protection - something done by yakshis earlier.
4. Even though in later  the colossal images disappeared, the private images continued in homes indicating continuation of private worship.
5. Similarly colossal figures of nagas and nagis have been found in Jamalpur (Mathura), elaborate brick and stone naga temple at Sonkh (Mathura), iron naga figurine at Peddabankur (Karimnagar) indicate that naga worship too was widespread.

Shivaism

1. The Pasupati seal recovered from Harappan civilization has been associated with Harappa.
2. Rudra was a Vedic god who grew in importance during the later Vedic age and subsequently multiple minor gods / traditions got integrated with Siva.
3. By 200 BC, the linga / phallic / fertility cult began to be closely associated with Siva and he was worshipped in the linga form. Gradually all religious texts began to worship Siva in this form.  Evidences of linga worship emerge in this period. At Bhuteshwar in Mathura, earliest evidence of linga worship has been found (linga on a platform under pipal tree enclosed by railing and two winged creatures worshipping it). Mukhalingas and anthromorphic form worships also became popular. Guddimalam, Nagarjunkonda show early evidences of linga worship in temples.  
4. By the Gupta age, many Shiva purans and other texts were composed and the pantheon of Shiva i.e. Shiva, Shakti, Parvati, Ganesha, Kartikeya, Ganga, Nandi were completed. Siva began to be worshipped in human form (idols from Kosam), in linga / mukhalinga form (important idol is from Nagod), in Ardhanarishwar form and in Harihar form (which is a reflection of Siva and Vishnu bhakti strands coming together). That the concept of the trinity of gods gained tremendous influence in Gupta period reflects the assimilatory character of the bhakti strands and the society in the age.
5. Shiva and Shakti coming together led to deep influence of tantric ideas. 
6. As a result of Bhakti movement, Agamas were composed which attached prime importance to bhakti. There were 3 sects which recognized the authority of Agamas - Shiva Siddhanta  (in S India), Kashmir Shivaism and Lingayat (in Karnataka).  The Shiva Siddhanta believes Shiva to be the creator of universe along with Shakti, the Kashmir Shivaism believes he created the universe by his creative will and the universe is mere mirror reflection of him. Siva and soul are one and same. The lingayats  rejected all the brahmanical distinctions and believed in supremacy of bhakti.
7. Other sects were Pasupati sect who were against the Vedic traditions. Then there were kapaliks who were influenced by tantricism and had many questionable practices including human sacrifice, eating in skulls.

Lingayats

1. They differed from bhakti as they didn't merely preach monotheism but also actively attacked religious hypocrisy. They questioned brahmanism, theory of rebirth, norms of caste system, untouchability. They encouraged certain practices disapproved in the dharmashastras like late post puberty marriages, remarriage of widows. They advocated better status of women (but barred their women from becoming priests). Shiva was worshipped in the form of the phallic cult or the linga. They resorted to burial instead of cremation. They won the support of the lower castes but themselves became a caste later on.

Shakti Worship

1. Goddess worship had been an integral part of Indian religion since stone ages and continued through Harappan civilization and later chalcolithic communities.
2. In the Purans, attempt was made to bring together some of these traditions into the brahmanical fold under the name of shakti. Later on Durga, Kali etc. were merged into it. Since female worship was popular among tribes, she is shown to be associated with hills, rivers, caves, gardens. All this was done as a part of the brahmanisation of these tribes. As the number and influence of these tribes grew, so did the forms of the goddess, her powers and importance and the forms of worshipping her. Multiple Durga images have been found in Mathura region (pre-Gupta) along with an image of her depicted as killing Mahisasur.   
3. By Gupta age, she came to be associated with Siva probably because both gods had a fierce side and a kind side.
4. By early-Medieval age, the forms had firmly extended to include Matrikas, Yoginis etc. That it was mainly an object of worship in the tribal and forest areas can be inferred from the fact that all the 64 yogini temples are located in Chattisgarh, MP and Odisha in the tribal areas.            

Svetambara-Digambar Schism in Jainism

1. The traditions of both sects recall a sudden split although in different manners and of course blaming each other. The archaeological evidences suggest otherwise. The split was a gradual process.
2. The move from total nudity to wearing clothes was a slow one. All the early images of Jain tirthankaras from Mathura were naked. Only in 5 cent image was a tirthankara shown wearing lower garment and with time, the images shown wearing clothes became more in proportion. The council of Valabhi in 5 cent AD may have hardened the divide between the two sects. It was purely a svetambara gathering and no digambar was present there. 

Tantricism

1. Shakti (Energy) is the central theme of universe according to Tantricism. It formed many secret sects and was based on secret mantras, rituals, magic and questionable practices. A paraphernalia of symbols, altars etc. was maintained.
2. Tantricism was divided into many sects, the principle ones were associated with worship of Vishnu, Siva and Shakti. It affected buddhism specially and led to its quick disappearance. Even Huen tsang tells us that in a place called Udyan there were thousands of monks and multiple viharas once but now most of them had fallen into disuse and whatever monks were left believed more in tantricism and knew little about buddhism. As a result of the influence of tantricism the form of buddhism changed from Mahayana to Mantrayana and Vajrayana in the east (in the west it was already finished). Then in opposition to Vajrayana, Sahajayana developed in Bengal (who believed in simple living and denounced the multiple rituals). Apart from the influence of tantricism (which reduced its difference from Hinduism), Buddhism also suffered because its message of ahimsa didn't resonate with the warlike needs of the feudal society.
3. Tantricism was not a new phenomenon and had been prevalent since ages including its influence on Atharva Veda. It became specially popular in Bengal, Assam, Punjab, Kashmir, Nepal, Odisha, Central India and S India. Hilly areas were special centers. One of the reasons it grew so quickly in early medieval age was the spread of brahmanism into the various tribal areas of India. Thus it denounce casteism and many of its gurus came from lower castes. Naturally it was condemned by brahmanism but later on attempts were made to integrate it and we can see its impact on many temple sculptures - specially in Odisha and central India and also in tantricism texts which began to recognize caste differences.

Schools of Philosophy

Samkhya    

1. The early Samkhya philosophy denied the need of a divine authority for creation if universe. Instead, it said, everything was derived from nature or prakriti.
2. Around 4 cent AD, concept of spirit or purush was added and creation of universe was attributed to both prakriti and purush together. Thus it became spiritualistic from being materialistic.  
3. Salvation can be attained by true knowledge which can be acquired through hearing (shabd), perception (pratyaksh) and inference (anumana). This was a scientific way of enquiry.  

Yoga    

1. Control over sense, body and mind is the key.   
2. Salvation can be achieved through meditation and specific exercises. Through the exercises, mind can get away from the worldly matters. It indicates progress in medical science as well as renunciation tendencies.  

Nyaya  

1. It was a system based on logic. It took many ideas of Vaisheshika and expand them. It gives a system of logic to explain the particularities of the plurality of things Vaisheshika seeks to explain. 
2. There are 5 stages in Nyaya style of argument - (i) State the hypothesis  (ii) Give the reason for hypothesis (iii) Give an example which serves as a rule to support the hypothesis (iv) Connect the rule to the hypothesis (v) Restate the hypothesis. Eg. (i) There is fire on the hill. (ii) We can say this because there is smoke there. (iii) Where there is smoke, there is fire. (iv) There is smoke, which is associated with fire, on the hill. (v) So, there is fire on the hill.  
3. True knowledge is the key to salvation. Perception, hearing and inference can help in attaining true knowledge.  

Vaisheshika  

1. It concerns mainly with dharma which is that thing which gives highest good. Since Vedas deal with dharma, Vedas have authority.
2. Vaisheshika means to explore the particularities in all things. They identify 7 categories of things which exist out of which substance is one. And then go on to say that all substance is made of atoms. Earth, fire, water, air and ether are the five elements; space, time, mind and self are 4 more.
3. All atoms are indestructible and join together to form the various things we see around.    
4. It later diluted its scientific view and put its faith in God and salvation.   

Mimamsa  

1. Mimamsa means reasoning or explaining. It sought to explain the Vedas from the point of view of nature and the goal of Vedic rituals.  
2. Vedas contain eternal truth. In early Mimamsa, God was irrelevant and Vedic sacrifices were central. Later on it came to accept God as supreme.   
3. A person enjoys heavens as long as his accumulated good deeds last. When they expire, he comes back to earth. And to do good deeds, one must perform Vedic sacrifices.  
4. Salvation can be achieved only through performance of Vedic rituals.   

Vedanta

Shankara  

1. The worldly objects are similar to things seen in a dream. Reality is one (a-dvaita) and plurality is maya. Maya is a product of ignorance.
2. Using this, he united the seemingly multiple philosophies of upanishads into one. 
3. He held knowledge of upanishads superior to the brahmanical sacrifices.
4. He held brahma to be one and the ultimate reality which is without attributes and is unchanging.
5. The purpose of the philosophy is to attain salvation which is possible only via true knowledge and true knowledge is realizing oneness of atma and brahma.   

Ramanuja

1. He considers brahm to have attributes like men. The relationship between brahma and atma is like rose and redness. Both are distinct, yet cannot exist without each other. This was his rejection of Shankara's advaita and his vishista dvaita. 
2. The path of bhakti was open to all irrespective of caste. He accepted the special privileges of the higher castes but opposed the exclusion of shudras from worshipping in the temples. He promoted monotheism and communal harmony. Although the temple was not opened to the shudras a number of subsidiary gods and rituals crept in.
3. He thinks devotion / love is a more effective way to salvation compared to Sankara's knowledge. Some of his followers argued that one must strive for this forgiveness (of the deity) but others believed that the deity selects those who are to be liberated - and it may be a random process. However his follower Madhava believed that the selection was not so arbitrary and the deity selects the person based on his purity of the soul.
4. Ramanuja was like a bridge between bhakti and the brahmanical religion. He drew some of his ideas from upanishads like the concept of soul and the brahma and the unison of both for the attainment of nirvana from rebirth. The emphasis on the individual was a feature of the bhakti perhaps borrowed from the shramanic religions.

Basic Tenets

1. It focuses on knowledge and interpretation of Upanishads. Where it departs from Mimamsa is its stress on knowledge as opposed to Vedic sacrifices.
2. Brahma is the only real thing and everything else is unreal or maya. Self (atma) and brahma are eternal, unchanging and indestructible.  
3. A person's current life is a result of his deeds in past life. So whatever miseries he is facing are not a fault of this world, so he should keep doing whatever he is supposed to.  
4. Knowledge of self (atma) is knowledge of brahma. By attaining knowledge, one can attain salvation.  

Materialistic Philosophy (Lokayat) of Charvak

1. It concerns with this world only and doesn't believe in the next.
2. There is no divine agency, no soul, no salvation, no life-birth cycle. All these things are inventions of Brahmans.
3. One must live in this world only.     

Ajivikas

1. Everything - down to the most insignificant thing - is pre determined.

Features of Hindu Religion

1. The Core: Vedic gods remained the core.  With time, importance of early Vedic gods like Indra, Varuna decreased and that of other gods like Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti increased.
2. Adaptability: With changing times and changing needs, new features were introduced to retain the influence. The doctrine of avatars and multiple forms enabled the core to modify itself and include other local and major gods as it spread and interacted with other major and minor traditions. Similarly when the bhakti movement grew, the core adapted again to bend away from brahmanical sacrifices towards devotion via temples. Pantheons and hierarchy of gods was built to accommodate local gods.
3. Interaction with Major Traditions:  These religions interacted and borrowed liberally from each other. Idol worship was borrowed from Jainism and Buddhism. Shrines of various religions shared common pool of auspicious symbols, ornamentation, sculpture styles etc. Ahimsa became a major theme. Now even in sacrifices no animals were killed and people increasingly took to vegetarian food. Even Buddha and Jain tirthankara Rishabh began to be considered as Vishnu avatars by the early-medieval age.
4. Interaction with Minor Traditions:  The span of Hinduism was grown by assimilating the various minor traditions in its fold. The gods were usually assimilated as minor gods or assistants / gatekeepers to the major gods and goddesses while the religious practices were inculcated in a slightly modified form. Examples are yaksha, yakshi, nagas etc. which became subordinate. The local forms of goddess worship which had been prevailing in many parts of India were mostly inculcated in one Shakti goddess. There were some traditions, however, particularly the Tantric traditions which were outrightly criticized by the mainstream religion and shunned. 
5. Changes in Religious Practices: Brahmanical sacrifices gave way to the temple and idol worship with the growing influence of bhakti.

S Indian Bhakti

Differences between S Indian and N Indian Bhakti

1. N Indian bhakti comes from the Sanskrit root bhaja which means to share or participate. So N Indian bhakt participates in the divine. S Indian saints expressed their devotion towards god through ambu or love. The use of Tamil version of term bhakti came up very late.  
2. The S Indian bhakti saints themselves are worshipped unlike N. 
3. In N, Krishna was a popular item of bhakti whereas in S, it was Vishnu and Shiva primarily which were worshipped. Avatars were secondary. 
4. S Indian bhakti focused on temples where proceedings were controlled by brahmans. N Indian bhakti advocated a more direct approach in religion. 
5. S Indian bhakti was against Buddhism and Jainism whereas N Indian bhakti had no such elements. 

Differences between Alwars and Naynars  

1. The Naynars expressed the relationship between God and bhakt as that of master and slave while the Alwars expressed it as that of bridegroom and bride, lover-beloved, friend, mother, father as well. 

Vaishnavism and Shaivism were but a religious form given to movements that would have surfaced in any case

1. Some believe that they were an expression of local sentiment questioning the attempts at homogenization made by Vedic brahmanism with its insistence on orthodox practices and social inequality. Buddhism and Jainism were less popular in the devotional movement because they advocated mortification of body through ascetic practices.
2. The appearance of the movement was not unexpected because it had a long gestation period as can be seen from the Sangam poems of love. The deity was now visualized as the lover. The emphasis was not on the object of worship but on the relationship involved in the worship.

Why did Bhakti become so popular in the later half of 1st millennium AD?

1. It may have been a reaction to the Sanskrit culture introduced into the elite circles and a reluctance to be subordinated to this culture. Bhakti's role was now similar to what Buddhism and Jainism had performed in 1st millennium BC in N India. Bhakti rejected the claim of closeness of brahmans to God and also the exclusion of the lower castes.
2. Political aspects of bhakti have been suggested as well. The king is seen as the focus of loyalty and demands devotion from his subjects like the deity receives it from his worshippers. This may have encouraged the rulers to patronize the devotional sects. 
3. Bhakti may also have been related to the upward mobility of some peasant and artisan groups and also with the freedom provided by the cities.
4. Bhakti saints also used common language while the brahmanical religion used the alien Sanskrit. They were also open to women.

Contribution of Buddhism to Bhakti

1. The concept of a compassionate deity came from Buddhism specifically from its notion of bodhisattvas. 

Impact of S Indian Bhakti

Social

1. On Women: It advocated that the path of bhakti was open for all including women. But the leadership of the movement remained in male hands only. At the general level, it was only towards the time of Ramanuja that women devotees were allowed a greater role.  
2. On Untouchability: Though there were a couple saints belonging to the untouchable castes which shows that path of bhakti was open to all, but their stories also show that entry of these saints into temples was not an easy one. But bhakti did try to create a community across the castes. 

Sufism

Philosophy

1. It rejected the quest for jannat in Muslim world and instead advocated the absolute union with God.  

Spread in India

Chisti Silsila

1. Sheikh Muin-ud-din Chisti was the first saint and he came with Ghori. He settled in Ajmer. His disciple was Khwaja Bakhtiyar whose disciple was Baba Farid. Baba Farid's disciple was Nizam-ud-din Auliya. Sufism became very popular under these. 
2. Baba Farid's teachings find their way in Guru Granth Sahib. He was a humanist. He never criticized any religion. 

Suharawardi Silsila

1. It was founded in Sind and Multan became its chief center. Baha-ud-din Zakariya was its main saint. Later on it spread to Gujarat, Bengal, Hyderabad, Bijapur as well. 

Sufism in S India

1. Sufism spread there even before the Muslim rulers went there. Chisti saint Sheikh Burhan was its founder in Deccan who was the disciple of Nizam-ud-din Auliya and he stayed in Daulatabad. Haji Rumi established his center @ Bijapur. After Sheikh Gensu Daraj, Chisti silsila became very popular in Deccan. A large madarssa was established in Gulberg due to his efforts and it became an important center of sufism in Deccan. They were open to all sects and even held discussion with the hindu saints. 
2. It was their impact only that Bahmani kings followed liberal policies. 

Outlook Towards State

1. Initial Chisti saints received great honor in the society and from the state. But they retained their independence from it. Baba Farid is said to be the son in law of Balban and yet he maintained his family in extreme poverty. Nizam-ud-din Auliya never went to any sultan's court. Not only did they maintain their distance from the state on the ideological front but also denied any economic assistance from them - even for their operations. 
2. However, by the time of Sheikh Gensu Daraj sufi philosophy had changed and it was no longer considered necessary that one should live in poverty for the pursuit of mysticism and proximity to God. So they came close to the rulers and in S India, Chisti silsila began to accept state assistance to carry out its programme. 
3. Suharawardi silsila, on the other hand, maintained close relations with the state from the onset. They believed that by using state assistance they can help the poor. In fact just like extremist maulvis used to influence the policies of the state towards extremist Islam, they too could tilt state policy towards moderate and humanist form of Islam. They didn't consider wealth as evil provided it was used in good deeds.

N Indian Bhakti

Origin of Bhakti Movement

Hypothesis #1, 2, 3 Turkish Influence

1. When Turks defeated Rajputs, they got dejected, couldn't face realities of life and turned towards other world.
2. This was the effect of sufi saints.
3. This was the effect of the egalitarian character of Islam.

Hypothesis #4 Indigenous Origin

1. India had a long tradition of Bhakti. Harappan, vedic, bhagwatism / vaishnavism, naynar / alwars, testimony of Al-Berouni are all examples.

Factors and Forces Responsible for the Growth

1. Defeat of the Rajputs and breakup of the brahman-rajput nexus.
2. Challenge of Islam and degeneration of Hindu society.
3. Breaking up of temples and need of a religious form where it could be practiced privately.
4. Indian thought and philosophy was confined in the boundaries of traditionalism. Earlier Buddha had challenged it but with time even Buddhism had become a mere shadow of its past and suffered from same weaknesses as the hindu religion. Shankara had tried to break the tradition by his philosophy of advaita but his message was beyond the comprehension of common people. Bhakti was simple.
5. There was high degree of hypocrisy and complications in the society. Even those who agreed with Shankara's advaita at a philosophical level were practicing discrimination in real lives. 
6. Inner vitality of Indian culture. It was assimilatory and evolving in character.

Kabir

1. Dignity of human labor: He was the first saint in nirgun bhakti who believed in the dignity of normal life and human labor despite being a saint. Thus he continued in his profession of weaving clothes till the end and didn't give up on the world. 
2. Reason: He applied reason to any practice and thought. He didn't accept something simply because it was prescribed in the religion. Instead he criticized it with no hesitation at all if it failed to stand the test of reason.
3. Egalitarianism: He believed that Hindu society had fallen to a level where people accepted equality among all at the philosophical and moral level but practiced gross discriminations at the behavioral level. He thus rejected casteism and believed in equality of all.
4. Humanism: He believed in love and compassion for fellow humans. He thus rejected any extremist view in religion which ran contrary to it. He believed that mankind has the ability to lift itself and religion should be there for welfare of mankind.
5. Monotheism: He believed there is only one god and all religions preach the same god. Thus he had followers among both hindus and muslims.
6. Criticism of materialism: Much before Marx and Rousseau he had claimed that economic inequalities are the root of all other disabilities and exploitation. He accepted money but believed everyone should have resources according to his needs. One should work hard and only earn what he needs to live. Excessive wealth brings inequalities and exploitation.
7. Rejection of extremism: He rejected the extremists and narrow views of brahmins and maulvis. He instead preached communal harmony.

Nanak

1. Monotheism.
2. Anti idol worship and complete devotion to God..
3. Communal harmony and rejection of extremism.
4. Egalitarianism.
5. Humanism.
6. Assimilatory: He even accepted the best from Islam.
7. His preaching had the seeds of a well organized religion. On the other hand Kabir merely criticized the ills in the society at large and wanted to remove them.

Other Bhakti Saints

1. Vallabhacharya: He preached in western UP and praised Krishna.
2. Chaitanya: He preached in Bengal and praised Krishna. He encouraged ecstasy music like Sufis.

Maharashtra Bhakti Saints

1. Ramnath, Tukaram, Namdev are the famous saints. They preached that everyone has come from the same God and hence everyone is equal. Namdev criticized casteism. 
2. They created a cultural movement in Maharashtra, led to the development of a common language, led to a feeling of unity and paved the way for eventual emergence of Marathas.

Nirgun Bhakti vs Sagun Bhakti

1. Nirgun saints (Kabir, Nanak, Dadu Dayal, Namdev) were not limited to any particular sect or religion in their following and in their ideas (thus were able to win followers among both hindus and muslims). But sagun saints (Tulsidas, Mira, Chaitanya, Vallabhacharya) were tied to their particular sect.
2. Nirgun saints believed in worshipping god in a form without any attributes. Sagun saints believed in worshipping him in the attributes form. 
3. Nirgun saints derived their philosophy from the upanishads. Despite advocating the attribute less form of God like Shankara where they departed from him was their emphasis on keeping their message simple and preaching in simple language and asking people to do something which they could actually do. Sagun saints derived it from epics, puranas, doctrine of avatar.
4. Nirgun saints emphasized more on personal devotion instead of external forms of worship and rituals. Sagun saints believed in idol worship, avatarism, devotional songs, worshipping in temples etc. and invariably paved the way for more rituals.
5. Nirgun saints were more progressive, humanist, rational and egalitarian in their outlook then the sagun saints. Nirgun saints openly opposed discrimination in any form - be it on the basis of caste or religion. They had no second thoughts about it. Sagun saints, on the other hand, accepted the prevailing discriminations to a certain extent. For instance even though Tulsidas was only trying to advocate complete devotion to God, in doing so he accepted even the social inequalities during Rama's era. Mira was very soft on some traditional issues.
6. Nirgun bhakti can be divided into 2 sects - one which emphasized knowledge and the other which emphasized love. Sagun bhakti can be divided into 2 sects as well - one devoted to Rama and other devoted to Krishna.

Impact of Bhakti Movement - How successful were they?

1. We must keep in mind none of them ever was trying to start a revolution or create a new religion. They were merely preaching their ideas of humanism, egalitarianism and devotion. They probably never thought they were actors in something big. 
2. Their success is reflected in communal harmony prevalent in India for centuries.
3. Marathas and Sikhs.
4. Contrary to the contemporary thought many saints combined sainthood with normal domestic life (Kabir, Namdev, Ravidas made shoes) and highlighted the importance of work. They showed the way how common people can practice bhakti.
5. Most of them were from the lower classes. They were able to create a serious challenge.

Social Composition of the Followers of Bhakti Movement

1. Even though today people from all sections praise them in their time their following was limited to certain sections only. The elite sections of the society kept themselves aloof from their movement.
2. The satnami sect in Braj land emerged from peasants and petty traders and reflects Kabir tradition. It also included artisans who were treated as lower / out castes. 
3. Nanak's followers were mainly peasants. It must be remembered that peasants constituted the bulk of the society and were one of the most exploited lot.
4. Al Berouni tells us that the small artisans were treated as untouchables and were forced by the society to follow their traditional occupations only. They had no scope of social mobility. They saw a way out in bhakti to improve their social position and joined it as well.
5. Al Berouni tells us that Jats were mainly shepherds and had a very low status in the society. They flocked to the nirgun saints so that they could be freed from their traditional occupation and practice farming as we find they became farmers by Akbar's time. This was one major reason for the emergence of Sikhism in Punjab.

Aryan & Vedic Period

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Early Vedic Age: The Vedic age began in India in about 1500 BC and extend upto 6000 BCE with the coming of the Aryans, who scattered on the plains of northern India. Max Muller believes it an anomaly to regard the race as Aryan because scientifically Aryan connotes nothing but language. The relationship between the race and language of these people with the classical languages of Europe was established by a Bavarian Franz Bopp in 1816.

Aryans developed Vedic culture based on Vedas. The meaning of the word Veda is "knowledge", the best of all knowledge in the eyes of Hindus. It is a collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies and sacrificial formulae. There are four Vedas, namely, Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Vedaand Atharva Veda.

Vedic Civilisation

Origin of Indian Music - Samveda Mention of Word 'Shudra' - Rigveda 10th Mandala Gayatri Mantra - Rigveda Mention of word 'Yajna' - Brahmana Somaras (drink) - Rigveda (9th Mandala) Varna - Rigveda Four fold division of Society - Rigveda 10th Mandala Mention of four Ashrams - Jabala Upanishada War between Aryan & Dasas - Rigveda Transmigration of Soul - Brahadaranyka Upanishada

Five divisions of India - Aiteraya Brahamana Wife and Husband are complementary - Satapathabrahmana Battle of Ten kings - Rigveda (7th Mandala) Superiority of Brahmins - Aiteraya Brahmana Rajanaya - Rigveda 10th Mandala Marut as Agriculturist - Satpatha Brahmana Satyameva Jayate - Mundaka upanishada Pashupath Shiva - Atharveda Vishnu - Satapatha Brahmana Conversion between Yam & Nachiketa - Katha Upanishada

Origin of Aryans

Some scholars, such as Max Muller and Dr. Thapar, believe that originally, the Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the area east of Alps, in the region known as Eurasia, the region of the Caspian Sea and the southern Russian steppes, and gradually dividing into a number of tribes migrated in search of pasture, to Greece and Asia Minor, to Iran and to India. By that time, they came to be known as Aryans. This is proved by some Aryan names mentioned in the Kassite inscriptions of 1600 BC and the Mitanni inscriptions of the fourteenth century BC, found in Iraq which suggest that from Iran a branch of the Aryans moved towards the west.

Original Home of Aryans
Region	Theorist
Asia
Central Asia	Max Muller
Tibet	Dayanand Saraswati
Pamirs	Mayor
Turkistan	Hurz Feld
Bactria	J.C. Rod
Steepes	Brandstein
Europe
Germany	Penka and Hert
Hungry	Giles
Southern Russia	Nehring
West Baltic	Mach
Arctic Region	B.G. Tilak
Russian Steppes	Prof. Belfy
India
Central India	Rajbali Pandey
Kashmir	L.D. Kala
Sapta Sindhu	A.C. Das
Himalayan Foothills	Pt. Laxmidhar Shastri

Other Scholars, such as Ganganath Jha, A.C. Das, Dr. Sampurnanand etc established the Sapta-Sindhu theory of Rig Veda which believe that Aryans were not foreigners but were indigenous people residing in the region comprising modern Punjab and Sindh. This theory has met with criticism, as the historians argue over the vast differences of culture between the Harappans and the Aryans.

Another theory propounded by Lokmanya Tilak suggests the Polar region as the regional homeland of Aryans, Zend Avesta and Rig Veda. Shows peculiar similarities in the terms used for religion and socio-economic context.

Aryans arrival in India

The Aryans came to India in several waves. The earliest wave is represented by the Rig Vedic people who appeared in the subcontinent in about 1500 BC. They came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the Dravidians mentioned as dasa or dasyus in Rig Veda. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. Possibly the dasyus in the Rig Veda represent the original inhabitants of the country, and an Aryan chief who overpowered them was called Trasadvasyu. The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas, but strongly hostile to the dasyus. The term dasyuhatya, slaughter of the dasyus, is repeatedly mentioned in the Rig Veda.

Some of the chief tribes of the period were Yadu, Turvasu, Druhyu, Anu Puru, Kuru, Panchala, Bharata and Tritsu. Among the inter-tribal conflicts the most important was the 'Battle of the Ten Kings.'

Dravidians

It is believed that before the coming of the Aryans in India, the greater part of Northern and North-Western India was inhabited by a group of people known as Dravidians. On arrival of the Aryans, unable to meet their challenge, they gradually moved southwards. Perhaps, in India, they were first to use rivers for navigation and irrigation

Aryans

The group of Indo-Europeans who moved to Persia and India are known to Aryans The Aryans are the original inhabitants of Central Asia. The arrived in India around 1500 BC, though there is an on going debate. The region where the Aryans settled in India was called Sapta Sindhu (also referred to as the Brahmavarta) The Aryans established themselves in India by defeating the natives whom they called Dasas or Dasyus The period when the Aryans first settled in India, is known as Early Vedic Period (1500 BC to 1000 BC) The Aryans spread to Indo-Gangetic plains in the later Vedic Period and this region came to be known as Aryavarta (1000 BC to 600 BC) The Aryans were the first people in India to know the use of iron and brought horses along with them.

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Expansion of Aryans into India

1. The treaty between Hitties and Mitannis dating to 1400 BC refers to Indra, Mitra, Varuna and Nasatya and curiously omits Agni and Soma - the important gods in Rig Veda.
2. The earliest Aryans lived in the region of E Afghanistan, NWFP, Punjab and fringes of W UP. Afghan R. Kubah and some other rivers are also mentioned in Rig Veda. Yamuna is referred to as twin of Ganga and Sutlej was associated with Beas - so neither were tributaries of Saraswati. They chose Punjab plains because they were now semi arid (due to climate change) and ideal for pastoral activities.   
3. The river Saraswati is identified as R. Harakhwati or the present R. Helmand flowing in Afghanistan. The name Saraswati was transfered from here to India.
4. In the Later Vedic Age, they moved to doab region. The 10 tribes battle mentioned in Rigveda talks about some tribes (Agra, Yakshu, Shigru) which resided in the doab region. The Kurus occupied Delhi and the upper portion of the doab, the Panchala occupied middle doab. In W UP, they came up against OCP cultures.
5. The Panchala kingdom consisted of modern districts of Barely, Badaun and Farukhabad.
6. Towards the end of later Vedic age, they moved further east into E UP and N Bihar. Here they had to fight people using "black and red" pottery. 
7. We know about this expansion in the later vedic period because the PGW sites excavated show a thickness of 1 to 3 meters indicating a settlement of 1 to 3 centuries and were not preceded by any habitation. 

Economic Life 

Early Vedic Age  

1. They knew about agriculture, sowing, threshing, ploughing etc. But perhaps they used it only to grow fodder and were primarily pastoralists. 

Later Vedic Age

1. The importance of agriculture grew so much that even kings didn't hesitate in taking to plough. Eg. Janak and Balram. It was only later that agriculture came to be banned for higher varnas as its relative importance diminished and urbanization grew. 

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Rig Vedic Polity

The administrative machinery of the Aryans in the Rig Vedic period worked with the tribal chief in the centre. He was called rajan.Although his post was hereditary, we have also some traces of election by the tribal assembly called the samiti. The king was called the protector of his tribe. He protected its cattle, fought its wars and offered prayers to gods on its behalf.

Several tribal assemblies, such as sabha, samiti, vidatha, and ganamentioned in the Rig Veda exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. Even women attended the sabha and vidatha in Rig Vedic times. But from the political point of view important were the sabhaand samiti

In the day-to-day administration, the king was assisted by a few functionaries. The most important functionary seems to have been thepurohita. The two priests who played a major part in the time of Rig Veda were Vasishtha and Visvamitra. The next important functionary seems to be the senani. Princes received from the people voluntary offering called bali.

There were cases of theft and burglary, and especially we hear of the theft of cows. Spies were employed to keep an eye on such unsocial activities. The officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture ground was called vrajapati. He led to the heads of the families called Kulapas. or the heads of the fighting hordes called gramanis to battle. The king did not maintain any regular or standing arymy, but in times of war he mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by different tribal groups called vrata, gana, grama, sardha.

Tribal Polity

The chief was the protector of the tribe or Jana However, he did not possess unlimited powers for he had to reckon with the tribal assemblies Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana were the tribal assemblies. Of these, Vidhata was the oldest. These assemblies exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. The two most important assemblies were the Sabha and Samiti. Samiti was general in nature and less exclusive than Sabha. Women attended Sabha and Vidhata in Rig Vedic times. A few non-monarchical states (ganas), are described whose head was Ganapati or Jyestha.

Politico-admin Life     

Early Vedic Age 

1. The head of a large pastoral ground was called vrajapati and he led kulapas  (head of family) and graminis (head of fighting hordes) into the battle.
2. In the beginning, the gramini was just the head of a small tribal fighting unit. But as the unit settled, he became the head of the village and in course of time, became identical to vrajapati. 
3. By and large it was a tribal form of government with strong militaristic elements. The civil character of the administration was missing because people were constantly moving as pastoral nomads. 

Socio Economic Life in Rig Vedic Period

Tribal Organizatoin: Kinship was the basis of social structure. People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe, which was called jana. Another important term which stands for the tribe in the Rig Veda is vis. Probably the vis was divided into grama or smaller tribal units meant for fighting. When the gramas clashed with one another, it caused samgrama or war. The term for family (kula) is mentioned rarely in the Rig Veda. It seems that family in early Vedic Phase was indicated by term griha.Differentiation in family relationship leading to the setting up of seperate households had not proceeded far, and the family was a very large joint unit. It was obviously a patriarchal family headed by the father. Since it was a patriarchal society, the birth was desired again and again.

Marriage and Status of Women: The institution of marriage was established, although symbols of primitive practices survived, We also notice the practice of levirate and widow remarriage in the Rig Veda. The status of women was equal to men and they received Upanayana and education, studied Vedas and some of them even rose to the rank of seers composing Vedic hymns. Monogamy was established, though polygamy and polyandry were also known.

Varna System: Varna was the term used for colour, and it seems that the Aryans were fair and the indigenous inhabitants dark in complexion. The dasas and dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans, were treated as slaves and sudras. Gradually, the tribal society was divided into three groups-warriors, priests and the people. The fourth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Veda period. In the age of Rig Veda, divisions based on occupations had started. But this division was not very sharp.

Occupation: Their earliest life seems to have been mainly pastoral, agriculture being a secondary occupation. The Aryans did not lead a settled life. Although they used several animals, the horse played the most significant role in their life. The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of agriculture. Ploughshare is mentioned in the earliest part of the Rig Veda though some consider it an interpolation. The term for war in the Rig Veda is gavisthi or 'search for cows'. The Rig Veda mentions such artisans as the carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver, the leather worker, the potter, etc. This indicates that they practiced all these crafts. The term, ayas used for copper or bronze shows that metal working was known.

Metals Known to Rig Vedic People
Gold	Hiranya
Iron	Shyama
Copper	Ayas

Diet: The Indo-Aryans, while sharing the ancient Iranian veneration for the cow, felt no scruple about sacrificing both fulls and cows at weddings or on other important occasions. The persons who took part in the sacrifice ate the flesh of the victim, whether bull, cow, or horse. But meat was eaten only as an exception. Milk was an important article of food, and was supplemented by cakes of barley or wheat (yava), vegetables and fruit.

Strong Drinks: The people freely indulged in two kinds of intoxicating liquor, called soma and sura. Sura probably was a kind of beer. Soma juice was considered to be particularly acceptable to the Gods, and was offered with elaborate ceremonial. The Sama Veda provides the chants appropriate for the ceremonies.

Amusements: Amusements included dancing, music, chariot-racing, and dicing. Gambling with dice is mentioned so frequently in both the Rig Veda and the later documents that the prevalence of the practice is beyond doubt.

Rivers Mentioned in Rig Veda
Rig Vedic Name	New Name
Gomati	Gomal
Krumi	Kurram
Kubha	Kabul
Suvastu	Swat
Sindhu	Indus
Drishadvari	Ghaghar/Chitang
Satudri	Satluj
Vipas	Beas
Parushni	Ravi
Asikni	Chenab
Vitasta	Jhelum

Frequency of Important Words Mentioned in Rig Veda
Word	Times Mentioned	Word	Times Mentioned
Pita	335	Rajya	1
Ashva	315	Kulpa	1
Jana	275	Ganga	1
Mata	234	Samudra	1
Indra	250	Sabha	8
Gau	176	Samiti	9
Vish	171	Grama	13
Vidata	122	Vidatha	122
Brahmana	14	Yamuna	3
Surya	10	Rashtra	10
Kshatriya	9	Krishi	33
Yamuna	3	Sena	20 Approx.
Raja	1	Rudra	3
Sudra	1	Vrihaspati	11
Vaishya	1	Prithavi	1

Social Life 

Evolution of Varna System 

1. The term "vaishya" emerges from the vis or the mass of tribal people. Vis was the unit above "gram" and below "jana". 
2. The unequal division of war booty (with more going to the chief) and influence of religion / knowledge led to the stratification of the society into warriors, priests and rest (vis). 

Women

1. In vedic age, the widow merely had to do a symbolic self immolation act at the death of her husband and it may have been a sign of status. Later on this was cited as the origin of sati with some tweaking of the practice in the religious texts. 
2. Things had not settled down yet. There are many variants of marriages among pandavas only - endogamy, monogamy, polygamy, polyandry and cousin marriage (Arjun and Subhadra).

Education

1. The method of grammar and memorization of vedas was not simple and was fine tuned to making the composition almost unalterable (hymns had to be uttered in the right manner) and thus contributing to the supremacy of brahmans.
2. Education was open to only twice born and the curriculum was such that it was useful only for brahmans. Hence the supremacy of brahmans.

After Life Philosophy

1. Life after death was envisaged in terms of either punishment (you go to the house of clay) or reward (you go to the world of fathers). The idea of transmigration of soul was initially vague and was developed only later.
2. Upanishads encouraged the philosophy that souls were reborn into a life of sorrow or joy depending upon their deeds in the previous life and nothing could be changed now. This was then fitted into the caste hierarchy (higher caste means good deeds and lower caste means bad deeds). Upanishads also encouraged renunciation.

Sacrifices as Ritual and Social Exchange

1. There were occasions when the bards composed eulogies on the exploits of the chiefs and were rewarded with gifts. Gradually it became ritualized with hymns and elaborate sacrifices coming up to bestow legitimacy to the king in exchange for gifts. Gradually the priests began to confer divinity on the kings by the rituals. Sacrifices thus became an instrument of a power struggle between the king and the priest - with the priest eventually winning. These ceremonies initially began to enhance the status of the king but gradually became necessary for him to claim any legitimacy.  
2. In these ceremonies he was supposed to donate all his wealth - either in the preparation of the sacrifice, or at the end of the sacrifice among the brahmans and other people (including craftsmen) and whatever remained had to be destroyed. This donation naturally kept a check on the wealth of the king and hence large states couldn't come up and thus helped in maintaining the supremacy of the brahmans. Further, it was held that such donation was a way of earning even more wealth and thus legitimized the extraction of even more wealth from the vis by the king (hence the statement - the king (later replaced by kshatriya) eats the vis). Only later on when the agriculture production became so much that it was not possible to exhaust the wealth in the sacrifice that the kings were able to accumulate wealth and large kingdoms began to be founded.
3. This situation led to a reaction of some kshatriyas against the brahmans. Thus it comes as no surprise that the founders of Jainism and Buddhism were both kshatriyas or the ideas in the upanishads questioning the sacrifices all came from kshatriyas. Also the republics were controlled by kshatriyas only who didn't confer to the brahmanical traditions and rituals and in turn were condemned by the brahmans (who championed the cause of monarchy).
4. This was extended to others as well and the patron of the sacrifice was now supposed to give a dakshina. The status of the patron depended upon how elaborate sacrifices he conducts and how much dakshina he gives. Soon it was held that a fraction of the benefit from the sacrifice also accrues to the patron. Any kind of material benefit (like property, son etc.) had to be prayed for and this further increased the power of brahmans. 
5. Gradually even more spectacular sacrifices were evolved and now only the higher castes could participate in them. Thus sacrifices worked to reinforce the societal divisions. RItuals also meant a redistribution of resources and thus contributed to social inequalities.
6. As the sacrifices began to grow more elaborate, priests had to specialize in certain function and this led to creation of classes among the priests as well.
7. The worship of agni and soma were central to Indian and Iranian religions. Vedic sacrifices also produced the knowledge of mathematics and anatomy. Also the increased importance of agni meant that instead of burials, dead began to be cremated.
8. The dasas were ridiculed in the vedas for not practicing rituals and instead practicing fertility cults. The growing complexities and exclusions of the rituals finally led to alternate philosophies and sects.

Rig Vedic Gods

The early Vedic religion was naturalistic. Evidently, there were neither temples nor idols. The mode of prayer was recitation of mantras. Sacrifice was offered for Praja (children), Pasu (cattle) and Dhana (wealth) and not for spritual upliftment or misery.

Early Vedic Religion

Believed in one Supreme God Did not believe in idol worship Worshipped the forces of nature as the manifestation of one Supreme God Vedic Gods have been classified into 3 categories - Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Celestial Indra, Agni, Varuna, Surya, Rudra, Yama, Soma, Marut, Dyaus, Vayu and Prajanaya. Prithvi, Saraswati, Usha, aditi were female deities. They were not given the same position as male Gods. People did not worship for spiritual reasons but for the welfare ofPraja & Pashu Recitation of prayers, chanting of Vedic hymns and sacrifices or yajnas were an important part of the worship.

Rig Vedic Gods
Indra	He was the most important divinity. He played the role of a warlord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons. 250 hymns are devoted to him in the Rig Veda. He was associated with thunder and storm and is addressed by various names: Ratheshtha, Jitendra Somapa, Purandra, Varitrahan and Maghayam
Agni	He was the second important divinity. He was intermediary between Gods and men. 200 hymns of the Rig Veda are devoted to him.
Varuna	He was the upholder of Rita or cosmic order or natural order. He personified water.
Soma	He was considered to be the God of plants. An intoxicant drink was also called soma.
Yama	He was the guardian of the world of dead.
Surya	Similar to that of the Greek God Helios
Savitri	The famous Gayatri mantra is addressed to Savitri
Pusan	Lord of jungle path, main function was that of guarding of roads, herdsmen and cattle.
Vishnu	A relatively minor God at that time.
Vayu	Wind God
Dyaus	Father of Heaven
Aditi	Goddess of Eternity
Maruts	Storm Spirits
Gandharvas	Divine Musicians
Ashvins	Healers of diseases and experts in surgical art
Ribhus	Gnomes
Apsaras	Mistresses of Gods
Rudra	An archer of God, whose anger brought disease
Vishvadeva	Intermediate Deities
Aranyani	Goddess of Forest
Usha	Goddess of Dawn
Prithvi	Goddess of Earth

Evolution of Monarchy and Varna system.

 The use of iron tools and cultivation created con­ditions for the transformation of the comparatively egalitarian Early Vedic society into a class-divided social order in the Later Vedic period. The Later Vedic society came to be divided into Brahmans, rajanyas or kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras.

Settled life led to a further crystallisation of this four-fold division of the society. Brahmans, initially merely one of the sixteen classes of priests, emerged as the most important class.

The growing cult of sacrifices enormously added to their power. The kshatriyas constituted the warrior class and came to be looked upon as protectors. The king was chosen from among them.

The rajanya, which already was a superior lineage during the Early Vedic period, now became Kshatriya, i.e., those who held power over a dominion (kshatra), which is the literal meaning of the word 'kshatriya'.

The vaishyas constituted the common people and devoted themselves to trade, agriculture and various crafts and was the tax- paying class.

The vaishyas appear to be the only tribute payers in Later Vedic period, and the kshatriyas are represented as living on the tributes collected from the vaishyas. The shudras were supposed to serve the three higher varnas and formed the bulk of the labouring masses.

All the three higher varnas shared one common feature: they were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread. The fourth Varna, shudra, was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony. With this began the imposition of disabilities on the shudras.

According to some scholars, Brahmans and kshatriyas had become hereditary, and the essential features of the caste system were already developed in the age of the Rigveda. But this view does not appear to be likely, as the terms Brahman and Kshatriya occur very seldom in the Rigveda.

A late hymn (of Mandal X) of the Rigveda, known as Purushasukta, says that when the gods divided Purusha (the Primeval Creator), the Brahman was his mouth; rajanya was made his arms; the vaishya was his thighs; and the shudra sprang from his feet.

This is the only hymn in the Rigveda in which the names rajanya, vaishya, and shudra occur. It would thus appear that towards the very end of the Rigvedic period, the distinction between four varnas had just begun to take shape, foreshadowing the development of the caste system of the future.

In view of the current beliefs, based on the Primeval Creator theory, it is important that according to the Purushasukta, the first three varnas were identical with, not considered to have sprung from, three parts of the Creator, while the last varna, shudra, sprang from the feat of the Creator.

The distinction between the original meaning and this new interpretation is vital. The former implies membership of the same organism and therefore equality in status, while the latter is a deliberate attempt to introduce gradation in rank according to place of origin.

Thus the advocates of the later social changes sought to derive support by wrongly interpreting the mythical con­ception in their favour.

On the basis of Varna, the elite would be a closed group with little or no upward mobility. Recruitment to each group would be strictly through birth. The elite would be drawn from the first three varnas-brahman, Kshatriya and vaishya.

Members of the Brahman group because of their ritual status would automatically be a part of the elite irrespective of their economic status. This applied to some extent to the kshatriyas as well.

But the case of the vaishyas was more complex, since this category could well include members of a low economic group, who, although theoretically an elite group, was actually not a part of the elite group.

Rules of endogamy changed during the Later Vedic period. As against tribal endogamy-marriage within tribe-the Later Vedic people practised gotra exogamy-marrying outside the gotra. The term gotra literally means cow pen.

It signified descent from a common ancestor. The gotra exogamy meant that marriages could not take place between two people belonging to the same gotra.

Thus, the concept of Varna was born and endowed with the following three features: (i) status by birth, (ii) a hierarchical ordering of the members of the society, and (iii) rules of endogamy and ritual purity.

The later Vedic texts also put an emphasis on Varna system. For example, in Aitareya Brahmana, in relation to the prince, brahmana is described as a seeker of livelihood and an acceptor of gifts.

A vaishya is called tribute paying, and to be oppressed at will. A shudra is called the servant of another, to be made to work at will by another, and to be beaten at will.

The Varna system, firmed up with Dharma, universal law, was an attempt to establish a social law for the smooth functioning of the society.

During the later Vedic Age with the shift in the geographical focus, the Vedic people encountered many non-Vedic tribes, interactions with whom led to the emergence of a complex society. Apparently, on this account, the Atharvaveda depicts a host of non-Vedic rituals which were sanctioned by the priests.

At the same time, the priests and the warriors, keen to maintain their superior status and tribal purity, practiced endogamy. It seems the Later Vedic Age was witness to a tussle over the control of the society.

The dominant groups tried to maintain their position by introducing rigid laws; the geo-political compulsions forced them to be less stringent. However, the rules were not cast in iron yet.

The division of the social groups was based on occupation alone. Society was still flexible where one's occupation was not deter­mined by birth. Thus even in the post-Vedic period, the Varna system did not prevent non-kshatriyas from becoming rulers, as did the Nandas and the Mauryas.

Nor did it stop Brahmans from becoming kings, as became the Sungas. Anyway, the concept of Varna during the Later Vedic Age was rudimen­tary in nature. The notion of untouchability for example is absent.

According to Romila Thapar, the key to the understanding of the Varna system lies in not seeing it as a framework of the hierarchical layers of social orders each fitting nearly below the other.

It may be more meaningful to see it as a series of vertical parallels, each Varna (pure or mixed) as an indepen­dent entity with its own hierarchy based either on a tribal identity or an occupational identity.

Monarchy

The transition from pastoralism of the Early Vedic Age to mixed-farming of the subsequent phase had a great impact on the nature of the Later Vedic polity. Tribal identity of the earlier age was replaced by a territorial identity leading to the growth of powerful territorial states.

Many of the famous tribes, such as Bharatas, Purus, Trusts and Turvasus, of the earlier period passed into oblivion. The political life became keener and the struggle for supremacy among different states was of frequent occurrence.

The egalitarian Rigvedic institutions like Sabha, samiti and vidatha began to lose their prominence and came to be dominated by chiefs and rich Nobels. Princes ruled over tribes, but their dominant tribes became identical with territories.

In the beginning each area was named after the tribe which settled there first, but eventually the tribal name became current as the territorial name.

A direct consequence of this development was the emergence of the terms like janapada, meaning the place where the tribe was settled, and rashtra in the Later Vedic texts.

However, the term rashtra was still not used in the sense of a state with well-defined territories. In a passage of the Atharvaveda, the rashtra (territory) is said to have been held by the king and made firm by King Varuna, and gods Brihaspati, Indra and Agni.

As the tribal chiefs came to be associated and identified with particular territories, there were changes in their functions and status. The rajan was now no longer only in-charge of cattle-raids, he was also responsible for the protection of the mahajanapada where his tribe had settled.

The rajanya already enjoying a superior lineage now became the Kshatriya, the literal meaning of which is protector of the fields. The Vis had to pay now for the protection of its fields and presentations or Bali and bhaga were now no longer paid at will.

Now those had become regular tributes and taxes. The increase in the importance of the kshatriyas led to the subordination of the vaishyas to them because they were also the pro­tectors of the field.

Another consequence of it was that the sabha (where the kshatriyas were predomi­nant) became more important than the samiti. It was also the kshatriyas who selected the rajas in the assemblies or the sabhas.

Several kingdoms came to be established during the Later Vedic period. The Kurus ruled in the Kuru- Panchal region (Delhi-Meerut-Mathura). Excavations in the region have revealed settlements belonging to the period 1000-700 BC.

The Kurus fought fratricidal war (better known as the Mahabharata) with their collaterals in 950 BC at Kurukshetra. The kingdom of Koshal, to which belonged Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, was situated to the east of the Ganga-Yamuna confluence.

The kingdom of Kashi was situated in the east of Koshala. Another kingdom was Videha whose kings bore the tide Janaka. Magadha, then of little importance, was located on the southern side of the Ganga.

It is said that when the Kurus and the Panchala merged together, their control of the mahajanapada was complete, i.e. they held the upper and middle reaches of the Ganga- Yamuna doab.

There was no firmly established principle of heredity or primogeniture. Consecratory rituals be­came very important for the ruler in order to assert his authority. Hence, ceremonies like rajasuya, Asvamedha and vajaperya were now performed nil a lavish scale.

These were relatively small affairs earlier, but now they became big to subjugate other rulers and legitimize the king's hold over alien lands. The raja was also required to integrate his lands with resources, economic production and distribution which raised his status.

However, he was still not the sovereign. The fact that he was selected and could be removed (by the kshatriyas) put him under severe constraints. Also, the subordinate rajas, which helped him in his work, could not be removed by him because they were also chiefs in their own rights and were selected, as he was, by the kshatriyas.

This gain in the status of the kshatriyas and the accep­tance of territories as a manifestation of a ruler's power are the two significant features of the polity of the Later Vedic Age.

The territorial monarchy was strengthened by taxation, which made a beginning in the Later Vedic period. Due to settled life and comparatively settled agriculture, peasants were in a position to produce surplus, at least moderately, which could be collected by king as taxes paid in grain and cattle.

They were probably deposited with an officer called sangrihitri or bhagadugha. In the Shatapatha Brahmana, a king is described as a devourer of the people (vishamatta), because he lived on what was realised from them.

The income from taxes enabled the development of monarchy as a state cannot be set up without a regular system of taxes and a professional army, which again depends on taxes.

The increase in the royal power, due to the growth of large territorial states, is duly reflected in the enlarged entourage of the king. Due to income from taxes, the king was in a position to appoint a large number of officials which included suta (charioteer), sangrihitri (treasurer), akshavapa (super­intendent of dancing) and kshattri (chamberlain).

These officials, as well as purohitas, senani and gramani were known as ratnins (jewel-bearers).

The vicissitudes' of the Vedic assemblies also contributed to the rise of moriarchial system. In the territorial states with jurisdiction over relatively larger area, ordinary people distanced themselves from Sabha and samiti as they could not afford to travel long distances to attend the meetings of these assemblies.

This gave an aristocratic character to the Vedic assemblies and took away much of their effectiveness. Some of their activities were taken by the ratnins.

Later Vedic Polity and Economy

Political Organisation: In later Vedic times, the vidatha completely disappeared. The sabha and samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed. Women were no longer permitted to sit in the sabha, and it was now dominated by nobles and Brahmanas. The formation of wider kingdoms made the king more powerful. Tribal authority tended to become territorial. The term rashtra, which indicates territory, first appears in this period. The King performed the rajasuya sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power to him. He performed the asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over an area in which the royal house ran uninterrupted. He also performed the vajapeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen. During this period collection of taxes and tributes, the king officer called sangrihitri.
Even in later Vedic times the king did not possess a standing army. Tribal units were mustered in times of war, and, according to one ritual for success in war, the king had to eat along with his people from the same plate.

Regions and Kings
Eastern King	Samrat
Western King	Suvrat
Northern King	Virat
Southern King	Bhoja
King of middle country	Raja

Imp Ratnins/Officials in Later Vedic Period
Purohita	Chief Priest, in also sometimes referred to as Rashtragopa
Senani	Supreme Commander of army
Vrajapati	Officer-in-Charge of pasture land
Jivagribha	Police Officer
Spasas/Dutas	Spies who also sometimes worked as messengers
Gramani	Head of the village
Kulapati	Head of the family
Madhyamasi	Mediator on disputes
Bhagadugha	Revenue collector
Sangrahitri	Treasurer
Mahishi	Chief Queen
Suta	Charioteer and court minstrel
Govikartana	Keeper of games and forests
Palagala	Messenger
Kshatri	Chamberlain
Akshavapa	Accountant
Sthapati	Chief Justice
Takshan	Carpenter

Kingdoms in the Later Vedic Age
Kingdom	Location
Gandhar	Rawalpindi and Peshawar districts of Western Punjab
Kekaya	On the bank of River Beas, east of Gandhar kingdom
Uttar Madra	Kashmir
Eastern Madra	Near Kangra
Southern Madra	Near Amritsar
Kushinagar	Nothern region of modern Uttar Pradesh
Panchal	Bareilly, Badayun and Farrukhabad districts of modern Uttar Pradesh
Kashi	Modern Varanasi
Koshal	Faizabad region of today's Uttar Pradesh

Occupation: The Aryans now lived a sedentary life, domesticated animal and cultivated on a greater scale than earlier suger-cane. Cattle still constituted the principal form of movable property. Elephants were tamed. However, the idea of private possession of land gradually began to crystallize. Wheat was also cultivated during this period along with barley. Rice is mentioned in sources but was not an important crop at this time. Beans and Sesame and pulses such as Moong, Urad etc. were also known. New arts, artists and craftsmen also emerged i.e. smelters, ironsmiths, carpenters, weavers, leather workers, jewellers, dyers and potters. Trade was also boosted.

Pottery: The later Vedic Aryans used four types of pottery- Black and Red Ware, Black Slipped Ware, Painted Grey Ware(PGW), and Red Ware. The black and red earthen pots were used around 600 BC by the people of Koshala. The Aryans knew copper or bronze and Iron. The introduced the PGW in northern India. It consisted of bowls and dishes, which were used either for rituals or for eating or both. These were mostly found to the upper Gangetic basin.

Currency: A gold piece of specific weight called Satamana is mentioned in Sathapatha-Brahmana. Nishka was the popular currency. Suvarna and Krishnala were two other classes of coins of circulation. Barter system will continued in spite of the presence of metallic coins. Money-lending was a lucrative trade and the interest on loan was moderately charged. The usurer is mentioned as Kusidin.

Later Vedic Society

Social Organisation: The later Vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called the Brahmanas, rajanyas orkshatriyas, vaisyas and shudras, each varna was assigned with its duty. Brahmanas conducted rituals and sacrifices for their clients and for themselves, and also officiated at the festivals associated with agricultural operations. They prayed for the success of their patron in war, and in return the king pledged not to do any harm to hem. Sometimes, the brahmanas came into conflict with the rajanyas, who represented the order of the warrior-nobles, for position of supremacy. Towards the end of the Vedic period, they began to engage in trade. All the three higher varnas shared one common feature, they were known as Dvijas (twice born), i.e., they were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras. The fourth varna was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony, and with its began the imposition of disabilities on the shudras. Outside the caste-system, there stood two important bodies of men, namely, Vratyas and Nishadas.

According to the Aitareya Brahmana, in relation to the prince, the brahmana is described as a seeker of livelihood and an acceptor of gifts but removable at will. A vaisya is called tribute-paying, meant for being beaten, and to be oppressed at will. The worst position is reserved for the shudra. He is called the servant of another. Certain section of artisans such as rathakara or chariot-maker enjoyed a higher status, and were entitled to the sacred thread ceremony. The term Nagara appears for the first time showing joint beginnings of town life. Women were generally giver a lower position. Although some women theologians took part in philosophic discussions and some queens participated in coronation rituals, ordinarily women were thought to be inferior and subordinate to men.

Types of Marriages in the Later Vedic Age
Brahma	Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same varna with Vedic rites and rituals
Daiva	Father gives the daughter to the sacrificial priests as part of fee or dakshina.
Arsa	A token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given.
Prajapati	Marriage without dowry and bride-price.
Gandharva	Marriage by the consent of two parties, often clandestine. A special form of it was swayamvara or self choice.
Asura	Marriage by purchase.
Paisacha	It is seduction of a girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk, hence it can hardly be called a marriage.
Rakshasa	Marriage by Capture

Marriage: Eight types of marriage were prevalent in the later Vedic age. Of these, four (Brahman, Daiva, Arsa and Prajapati) were generally approved and were permissible to Brahmans. These were religious marriages and were indissoluble.

Anuloma Marriage: Marriage of a man below his varna was called Anuloma. It was sanctioned by the sacred texts.

Pratiloma Marriage: Pratiloma marriage was the marriage of a girl or women to one lower than her own varna. It was not sanctioned by the sacred texts.

Gotra System: The institution of gotra appeared in later Vedic times. Literally, it means the cow-pen or the place where cattle belonging to the whole clan are kept. The gotra has been regarded as a mechanism for widening the socio-political ties, as new relationships were forged between hitherto unrelated people. People began to practisegotra exogamy. No marriage could take place between persons belonging to the same gotra or having the same ancestor.

Ashrama System: Ashramas or four stages of life were not well established in early Vedic times. In the post-Vedic texts, we hear of four ashramas: that of brahmachari or student, grihastha or householder, vanaprastha or partial retirement and sanyasa or complete retirement from the world. But only three are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. The last or the fourth stage had not been well-established in Later Vedic times. 4th Ashrama only mentioned in Jabala Upanishad.

Food and Drinks: The staple diet was milk and ghee, vegetables, fruit and barely. Wheat was rarely eaten. On ceremonial occasions at a religious feast or the arrival of a guest, a more elaborate meal usually including the flesh of ox, goat, sheep and birds were taken after being washed with sura. Fish and other river animals were also relished upon. The guests were never served vegetarian foods, or at least one non-vegetarian food was compulsory.

Dress: Clothes were simple. Two piece clothes were normally worn: uttariya or the upper garment and antariya or the lower garment. There was no difference between the clothes of male and female. Ornaments were used by both the sexes and bangles were worn by privileged few, Shoes were used. Use of oil, comb, mirror razors, hair ointment and a few cosmetics was known.

Amusements: Music, both vocal and instrumental, was the major source of amusements. Playing of veena, drum flute, harp and cymbals were more common, also were dance. Chariot-racing and gambling were other sources of amusement.

Education: It was for a privileged few. Only Brahamanas and Kshatriyas were allowed to get education. Even women education was discouraged and the study of Vedic literature were forbidden to women in spite of the fact that a few gifted women scholars were present at the time and female teachers were also there.
The subject taught were veda, itihasa, grammer, mathematics etihcs, dialectics, astronomy, military science, fine arts, music and medical science.s

Religion in Later Vedic Period

The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their former importance. On the other hand Prajapati, the creator, came to occupy the supreme position in later Vedic pantheon. Rudra, the god of animals, became important in later Vedic times and Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people. In addition, some symbolic objects began to be worshipped, and we notice signs of idolatry. Pushan, who was supposed to look after cattle, came to be regarded as the god to the sudras. Important female deities during the Later Vedic Age were: Usha (goddess of Dawn), Aditi (Mother of Gods), Prithvi (Earth Goddess), Aryani (Forest Goddess) and Saraswati (River deity). The mode of worship changed considerably. Prayers continued to be recited, but they ceased to be the dominant mode of placating the gods. Sacrifices became far more important, and they assumed both public and domestic character. The guest were known as the goghna or one who was fed on cattle. The priests who officiated at sacrifices were regarded generously and givendakshinas or gifts.

Chief Priests
The Chief priests who were engaged in performing the sacrifices were:- Hotri: The invoker, he recited hymns from Rig Veda Adhvaryu: The executor, he recited hymns from Yajur Veda. Udgatri: The singer, he recited hymns from Sama Veda The Chief Priests received voluntary offering from the people called Bali

Important Vedic Rituals

Rajasuya: The King's influence was strengthened by rituals. He performed this sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power on him. Asvamedha: A King performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over the area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. The ceremony laster for three days at the end of which horse sacrifice was performed. Vajapeya: A king performed the Vajpeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen. The ritual lasted for seventeen days and was believed not only to restore the strength of the middle-aged king but also to elevate him from the position to raja of that of samrat Garbhadhana: A ceremony which is performed to promote conception in women Pumsayam: This ritual is performed to procure a male child Semontonayam: It is ritual performed to ensure the safety of the child in the womb. Jatkarma: It is a birth ceremony performed before the cutting of the umbilical cord. Culakarma: It is a ritual, also known as tonsure, performed for boys in their third year. Upanayana: It is an initiation ceremony to confor dvija(twice horn) status of boys of the higher varnas in their eight year.

Vedic Literature

FOUR VEDAS
Samveda
Rhthmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda "Book for Chants" contains 1,549 hymns, meant to be sung at the 'soma' sacrifice by a special class of Brahmanas called Udgatris. But the Samaveda has very little original value. Has only 75 fundamental hymns Karnataka - Jaiminga Gujarat - Kanthun Maharashtra - Ranayaniya Sung by Udgatri
Rigveda
Collection of hymns Oldest of all vedas Associated of 1017 hymns or Suktas after adding "Blhilya Sukta" number in 1028 Compiled in 10 'mandalas' & 8 'Akhtaks'. Also contains the famous Gayatri Mantra II, III, IV, V, VI & VII are oldest mandalas I, VIII, IX, X are latest mandalas. The Tenth "Mandalas" or chapter which has the "Purushasukta" hymn, was probably added later. Mandala IX is completely devoted to 'Soma'. Mandala II to VII were created by Grita Samada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaj, Vashistha, VIII Kanwa and Angira, IX Soma
Yajurveda
Book of sacrifical prayers Rituals of yajnas Is sung of priest "Adhavaryu" Its mantras tell us how the sacrifices were to be performed and what part the "Adhvaryus"- the Brahmanas who performed the manual work in the arrangement of sacrifice were to play at the time of sacrifice. Has been compiled in "fourth path" Has been divided into, Krishna(black) Yajurveda & Shukla(white) Yajurveda Prose text
Atharvaveda
Mantras for magic spells Populate ritualistic system & superstitions Associated with "Saunkiya" and "Paiplad" community Collection of 711/731/760 hymns Not included in 'Trai' Has been divided in 20 "Kandas" 18th, 19th & 20th 'Kandas' are later works Provides freedom from evils spirits. Oldest text on Indian Medicine.

The vast literature of the Aryans is divided into two parts - Sruti and Smriti 

1. Sruti Literature: The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved, which means 'spiritual knowledge'. The Vedas are four in number - Rig Veda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rig Veda contains a references only to the first three Vedas, which suggests that the fourth Veda was composed at some later date.

The Vedic literature is usually divided into three periods:-

1. The Mantra period when the Samhitas were composed
2. Brahaman period when the Brahamanas, Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed
3. the Sutra period.

These three periods succeeded or overlap each other.

Brahmanas are massive prose text which contain speculation of the meaning of the hymns, give precepts for their application, relate stories of their origin in connection with sacrificial rites and explain the secret meaning of the later. 

Vedas and their Brahmanas
1.	Rigveda	Aitereya and Kaushitaki
2.	Samaveda	Tandya and Jaiminiya
3.	Yajurveda	Tattiriya and Satpatha
4.	Atharvaveda	Gopatha

The Aranyakas are the concluding parts of the Brahamanas. It doest not lay much stress on rites, rituals and sacrifices, but merely contain the philosophy and mysticism. The lead with the problems of soul, origin and elements of universe and the creation of universe. 

Aranyaka
Literarily, it means 'Jungle' Provides description of Moral Science and Philosophy Provides details of hermits and saints who lived in Jungles Give stress on meditation Protests the system of 'Yajnas'

It would be appropriate to describe Upanishadas as mystic writings. There are 108 Upanishads in all, the most prominent of them being Ish, Prasana, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogaya, Kathoupanishad, Ishopanishad, Brehadaranyaka, etc.

Upanishada

Literary meaning is 'Satra' (to sit near masters feet) in which Guru offers band of knowledge to their disciples Is a combination of Tatva-mimansa and philosophy They are also called "Vedanta" Primitive upanishada are "Brahadaranyaka" and "Chandogya" Later Upnishada like "Katha" and "Swetaswatar" have been written in poetic forms. Brahma is the summary of philosophy, which is the only a 'truth' in the world. Knowledge awards salvation says Upanishadas Oldest possibility Narsinghpurvatapani Latest possibility Allopanishada in Akbar's reign

2. Smriti Literature: Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire body of post-Vedic classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping subjects:-

1. The Vedangas: They refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas. The Vedangas are conventionally divided into six heading namely:- (i) Kalpa or the ritual canon, including thedharma shastras or legal codes, (ii)Jyotisha or astronomy, (iii) Siksha or phonetics, (iv)Chhanda or metre (v) Nirukta or etymology (vi)Vyakarana (Grammer)
2. The Shad-Darsana: Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, namely Nyaya, 'Vaiseshikha', Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.
3. Itihasa: Legendary or semi-legendary works, specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharata and often extended to the Puranas.
4. Puranas: Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily coloured with the superstitions. The Puranas represent the most corrupt form of Hinduism. They are 18 in number
   

   The Eighteen Puranas
   1	Brahma Purana	2	Vishnu Purana
   3	Shiva Purana	4	Padma Purana
   5	Shrimad Bhagwat Purana	6	Agni Purana
   7	Narad Purana	8	Markandey Purana
   9	Bhavishya Purana	10	Ling Purana
   11	Varah Purana	12	Vaman Purana
   13	Brahm Vaivertya Purana	14	Shanda Purana
   15	Surya Purana	16	Matsya Purana
   17	Garuda Purana	18	Brahmand Purana

5. Upaveda: Also known as the auxiliary Vedas, they deal with medicine, architecture, erotics, archery and various arts and crafts. These were partly derived from original Vedic texts and were traditionally associated with one or other of the Vedas.
6. Tantras: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain antinomian Buddhist scholars
7. Agamas: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and Shaktas.
8. Upangas: They are a generic name for any collection of treatises although traditionally confined to the philosophical systems of 'Nyaya' and 'Mimansa' - the 'Dharma Sutras' the 'Puranas' and the 'Tantras'

3. Epics: Some historians regard the Later Vedic Period as the Period of Epics. The Mahabharata and the Ramayanaare the two great epics of this period.
Ramayana: It is said to have been composed by the sage, Valmiki. The incident related in it precedes theMahabharata by about a hundred and fifty years. The story of Ramayana is of indigenous origin and had existed in ballad form in Prakrit, in more than one version. It was rewritten in Sanskrit and augmented with many 'Shlokas'. The epic was given a Brahmanical character which was not visible in the original work. It is also known as Adi Kavya. Evidence places the oldest part of the Ramayana to before 350 BC. The reference in the epic to the mingled hords of Yavanas and Shakas suggests that it received accretions in the Graeco-Scythian period and may have acquired its final shape by about AD 250.

Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses and is divided into 18 paravas (books). This book is usually assigned to Rishi Ved Vyas, but scholars have expressed doubts if such a great work could have been accomplished by one single person. The story itself occupies only about one-fourth of the poem. It is a tale about conflict between Aryans-Kaurava and Pandava. The rest is episodical comprising cosmology, theogony, state craft, the science of war, ethics, legendary history, mythology, fairy tales and several digressional and philosophical interludes, of which the best known is the Bhagavad Gita

Vedic Doctrine of Hinduism

By the end of the Later Vedic Age, six prominent schools of Hindu Philosophy had been established. They are as follows: 

Darshans	Authors	Year of Beginning	Original Book	Theme
Nyaya	Gautama	6th BC	Nyaya Sutra	It is a logical quest for God. It tells that the material powerMaya, with the help of God, becomes the universe.
Vaisheshik	Kanada	6th BC	Vaisheshik Sutra	It aims is to receive happiness in this life and finally ultimate liberation through the attachment of true knowledge of the Divine.
Sankhya	Kapila	6th BC	Sankhya Sutra	It explains that the aim of Sankhya is to eliminate all kinds of physical and mental pains and to receive liberation.
Yoga	Maharishi Patanjali	2nd BC	Yog Sutra	It has four chapters and accepts three kinds of evidences for determining the aim of life.
Purva Mimansa	Jaimini	4th BC	Purva Mimansa Sutra	It is condensed explanation of Vedic theme and at the same time, the classification of its issues.
Vedanta (Uttara Mimansa)	Maharishi Vyasa	4th BC	Uttara Mimansa Sutra	It explains that Brahama Sutra is for that person who has a real deep desire to know God. True liberation could only be attained by lovingly surrendering to Him.

Vedic Civilisation

Origin of Indian Music - Samveda Mention of Word 'Shudra' - Rigveda 10th Mandala Gayatri Mantra - Rigveda Mention of word 'Yajna' - Brahmana Somaras (drink) - Rigveda (9th Mandala) Varna - Rigveda Four fold division of Society - Rigveda 10th Mandala Mention of four Ashrams - Jabala Upanishada War between Aryan & Dasas - Rigveda Transmigration of Soul - Brahadaranyka Upanishada

Five divisions of India - Aiteraya Brahamana Wife and Husband are complementary - Satapathabrahmana Battle of Ten kings - Rigveda (7th Mandala) Superiority of Brahmins - Aiteraya Brahmana Rajanaya - Rigveda 10th Mandala Marut as Agriculturist - Satpatha Brahmana Satyameva Jayate - Mundaka upanishada Pashupath Shiva - Atharveda Vishnu - Satapatha Brahmana Conversion between Yam & Nachiketa - Katha Upanishada