Aryan & Vedic Period

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Early Vedic Age: The Vedic age began in India in about 1500 BC and extend upto 6000 BCE with the coming of the Aryans, who scattered on the plains of northern India. Max Muller believes it an anomaly to regard the race as Aryan because scientifically Aryan connotes nothing but language. The relationship between the race and language of these people with the classical languages of Europe was established by a Bavarian Franz Bopp in 1816.

Aryans developed Vedic culture based on Vedas. The meaning of the word Veda is "knowledge", the best of all knowledge in the eyes of Hindus. It is a collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies and sacrificial formulae. There are four Vedas, namely, Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Vedaand Atharva Veda.

Vedic Civilisation

Origin of Indian Music - Samveda Mention of Word 'Shudra' - Rigveda 10th Mandala Gayatri Mantra - Rigveda Mention of word 'Yajna' - Brahmana Somaras (drink) - Rigveda (9th Mandala) Varna - Rigveda Four fold division of Society - Rigveda 10th Mandala Mention of four Ashrams - Jabala Upanishada War between Aryan & Dasas - Rigveda Transmigration of Soul - Brahadaranyka Upanishada

Five divisions of India - Aiteraya Brahamana Wife and Husband are complementary - Satapathabrahmana Battle of Ten kings - Rigveda (7th Mandala) Superiority of Brahmins - Aiteraya Brahmana Rajanaya - Rigveda 10th Mandala Marut as Agriculturist - Satpatha Brahmana Satyameva Jayate - Mundaka upanishada Pashupath Shiva - Atharveda Vishnu - Satapatha Brahmana Conversion between Yam & Nachiketa - Katha Upanishada

Origin of Aryans

Some scholars, such as Max Muller and Dr. Thapar, believe that originally, the Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the area east of Alps, in the region known as Eurasia, the region of the Caspian Sea and the southern Russian steppes, and gradually dividing into a number of tribes migrated in search of pasture, to Greece and Asia Minor, to Iran and to India. By that time, they came to be known as Aryans. This is proved by some Aryan names mentioned in the Kassite inscriptions of 1600 BC and the Mitanni inscriptions of the fourteenth century BC, found in Iraq which suggest that from Iran a branch of the Aryans moved towards the west.

Original Home of Aryans
Region	Theorist
Asia
Central Asia	Max Muller
Tibet	Dayanand Saraswati
Pamirs	Mayor
Turkistan	Hurz Feld
Bactria	J.C. Rod
Steepes	Brandstein
Europe
Germany	Penka and Hert
Hungry	Giles
Southern Russia	Nehring
West Baltic	Mach
Arctic Region	B.G. Tilak
Russian Steppes	Prof. Belfy
India
Central India	Rajbali Pandey
Kashmir	L.D. Kala
Sapta Sindhu	A.C. Das
Himalayan Foothills	Pt. Laxmidhar Shastri

Other Scholars, such as Ganganath Jha, A.C. Das, Dr. Sampurnanand etc established the Sapta-Sindhu theory of Rig Veda which believe that Aryans were not foreigners but were indigenous people residing in the region comprising modern Punjab and Sindh. This theory has met with criticism, as the historians argue over the vast differences of culture between the Harappans and the Aryans.

Another theory propounded by Lokmanya Tilak suggests the Polar region as the regional homeland of Aryans, Zend Avesta and Rig Veda. Shows peculiar similarities in the terms used for religion and socio-economic context.

Aryans arrival in India

The Aryans came to India in several waves. The earliest wave is represented by the Rig Vedic people who appeared in the subcontinent in about 1500 BC. They came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the Dravidians mentioned as dasa or dasyus in Rig Veda. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. Possibly the dasyus in the Rig Veda represent the original inhabitants of the country, and an Aryan chief who overpowered them was called Trasadvasyu. The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas, but strongly hostile to the dasyus. The term dasyuhatya, slaughter of the dasyus, is repeatedly mentioned in the Rig Veda.

Some of the chief tribes of the period were Yadu, Turvasu, Druhyu, Anu Puru, Kuru, Panchala, Bharata and Tritsu. Among the inter-tribal conflicts the most important was the 'Battle of the Ten Kings.'

Dravidians

It is believed that before the coming of the Aryans in India, the greater part of Northern and North-Western India was inhabited by a group of people known as Dravidians. On arrival of the Aryans, unable to meet their challenge, they gradually moved southwards. Perhaps, in India, they were first to use rivers for navigation and irrigation

Aryans

The group of Indo-Europeans who moved to Persia and India are known to Aryans The Aryans are the original inhabitants of Central Asia. The arrived in India around 1500 BC, though there is an on going debate. The region where the Aryans settled in India was called Sapta Sindhu (also referred to as the Brahmavarta) The Aryans established themselves in India by defeating the natives whom they called Dasas or Dasyus The period when the Aryans first settled in India, is known as Early Vedic Period (1500 BC to 1000 BC) The Aryans spread to Indo-Gangetic plains in the later Vedic Period and this region came to be known as Aryavarta (1000 BC to 600 BC) The Aryans were the first people in India to know the use of iron and brought horses along with them.

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Expansion of Aryans into India

1. The treaty between Hitties and Mitannis dating to 1400 BC refers to Indra, Mitra, Varuna and Nasatya and curiously omits Agni and Soma - the important gods in Rig Veda.
2. The earliest Aryans lived in the region of E Afghanistan, NWFP, Punjab and fringes of W UP. Afghan R. Kubah and some other rivers are also mentioned in Rig Veda. Yamuna is referred to as twin of Ganga and Sutlej was associated with Beas - so neither were tributaries of Saraswati. They chose Punjab plains because they were now semi arid (due to climate change) and ideal for pastoral activities.   
3. The river Saraswati is identified as R. Harakhwati or the present R. Helmand flowing in Afghanistan. The name Saraswati was transfered from here to India.
4. In the Later Vedic Age, they moved to doab region. The 10 tribes battle mentioned in Rigveda talks about some tribes (Agra, Yakshu, Shigru) which resided in the doab region. The Kurus occupied Delhi and the upper portion of the doab, the Panchala occupied middle doab. In W UP, they came up against OCP cultures.
5. The Panchala kingdom consisted of modern districts of Barely, Badaun and Farukhabad.
6. Towards the end of later Vedic age, they moved further east into E UP and N Bihar. Here they had to fight people using "black and red" pottery. 
7. We know about this expansion in the later vedic period because the PGW sites excavated show a thickness of 1 to 3 meters indicating a settlement of 1 to 3 centuries and were not preceded by any habitation. 

Economic Life 

Early Vedic Age  

1. They knew about agriculture, sowing, threshing, ploughing etc. But perhaps they used it only to grow fodder and were primarily pastoralists. 

Later Vedic Age

1. The importance of agriculture grew so much that even kings didn't hesitate in taking to plough. Eg. Janak and Balram. It was only later that agriculture came to be banned for higher varnas as its relative importance diminished and urbanization grew. 

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Rig Vedic Polity

The administrative machinery of the Aryans in the Rig Vedic period worked with the tribal chief in the centre. He was called rajan.Although his post was hereditary, we have also some traces of election by the tribal assembly called the samiti. The king was called the protector of his tribe. He protected its cattle, fought its wars and offered prayers to gods on its behalf.

Several tribal assemblies, such as sabha, samiti, vidatha, and ganamentioned in the Rig Veda exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. Even women attended the sabha and vidatha in Rig Vedic times. But from the political point of view important were the sabhaand samiti

In the day-to-day administration, the king was assisted by a few functionaries. The most important functionary seems to have been thepurohita. The two priests who played a major part in the time of Rig Veda were Vasishtha and Visvamitra. The next important functionary seems to be the senani. Princes received from the people voluntary offering called bali.

There were cases of theft and burglary, and especially we hear of the theft of cows. Spies were employed to keep an eye on such unsocial activities. The officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture ground was called vrajapati. He led to the heads of the families called Kulapas. or the heads of the fighting hordes called gramanis to battle. The king did not maintain any regular or standing arymy, but in times of war he mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by different tribal groups called vrata, gana, grama, sardha.

Tribal Polity

The chief was the protector of the tribe or Jana However, he did not possess unlimited powers for he had to reckon with the tribal assemblies Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana were the tribal assemblies. Of these, Vidhata was the oldest. These assemblies exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. The two most important assemblies were the Sabha and Samiti. Samiti was general in nature and less exclusive than Sabha. Women attended Sabha and Vidhata in Rig Vedic times. A few non-monarchical states (ganas), are described whose head was Ganapati or Jyestha.

Politico-admin Life     

Early Vedic Age 

1. The head of a large pastoral ground was called vrajapati and he led kulapas  (head of family) and graminis (head of fighting hordes) into the battle.
2. In the beginning, the gramini was just the head of a small tribal fighting unit. But as the unit settled, he became the head of the village and in course of time, became identical to vrajapati. 
3. By and large it was a tribal form of government with strong militaristic elements. The civil character of the administration was missing because people were constantly moving as pastoral nomads. 

Socio Economic Life in Rig Vedic Period

Tribal Organizatoin: Kinship was the basis of social structure. People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe, which was called jana. Another important term which stands for the tribe in the Rig Veda is vis. Probably the vis was divided into grama or smaller tribal units meant for fighting. When the gramas clashed with one another, it caused samgrama or war. The term for family (kula) is mentioned rarely in the Rig Veda. It seems that family in early Vedic Phase was indicated by term griha.Differentiation in family relationship leading to the setting up of seperate households had not proceeded far, and the family was a very large joint unit. It was obviously a patriarchal family headed by the father. Since it was a patriarchal society, the birth was desired again and again.

Marriage and Status of Women: The institution of marriage was established, although symbols of primitive practices survived, We also notice the practice of levirate and widow remarriage in the Rig Veda. The status of women was equal to men and they received Upanayana and education, studied Vedas and some of them even rose to the rank of seers composing Vedic hymns. Monogamy was established, though polygamy and polyandry were also known.

Varna System: Varna was the term used for colour, and it seems that the Aryans were fair and the indigenous inhabitants dark in complexion. The dasas and dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans, were treated as slaves and sudras. Gradually, the tribal society was divided into three groups-warriors, priests and the people. The fourth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Veda period. In the age of Rig Veda, divisions based on occupations had started. But this division was not very sharp.

Occupation: Their earliest life seems to have been mainly pastoral, agriculture being a secondary occupation. The Aryans did not lead a settled life. Although they used several animals, the horse played the most significant role in their life. The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of agriculture. Ploughshare is mentioned in the earliest part of the Rig Veda though some consider it an interpolation. The term for war in the Rig Veda is gavisthi or 'search for cows'. The Rig Veda mentions such artisans as the carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver, the leather worker, the potter, etc. This indicates that they practiced all these crafts. The term, ayas used for copper or bronze shows that metal working was known.

Metals Known to Rig Vedic People
Gold	Hiranya
Iron	Shyama
Copper	Ayas

Diet: The Indo-Aryans, while sharing the ancient Iranian veneration for the cow, felt no scruple about sacrificing both fulls and cows at weddings or on other important occasions. The persons who took part in the sacrifice ate the flesh of the victim, whether bull, cow, or horse. But meat was eaten only as an exception. Milk was an important article of food, and was supplemented by cakes of barley or wheat (yava), vegetables and fruit.

Strong Drinks: The people freely indulged in two kinds of intoxicating liquor, called soma and sura. Sura probably was a kind of beer. Soma juice was considered to be particularly acceptable to the Gods, and was offered with elaborate ceremonial. The Sama Veda provides the chants appropriate for the ceremonies.

Amusements: Amusements included dancing, music, chariot-racing, and dicing. Gambling with dice is mentioned so frequently in both the Rig Veda and the later documents that the prevalence of the practice is beyond doubt.

Rivers Mentioned in Rig Veda
Rig Vedic Name	New Name
Gomati	Gomal
Krumi	Kurram
Kubha	Kabul
Suvastu	Swat
Sindhu	Indus
Drishadvari	Ghaghar/Chitang
Satudri	Satluj
Vipas	Beas
Parushni	Ravi
Asikni	Chenab
Vitasta	Jhelum

Frequency of Important Words Mentioned in Rig Veda
Word	Times Mentioned	Word	Times Mentioned
Pita	335	Rajya	1
Ashva	315	Kulpa	1
Jana	275	Ganga	1
Mata	234	Samudra	1
Indra	250	Sabha	8
Gau	176	Samiti	9
Vish	171	Grama	13
Vidata	122	Vidatha	122
Brahmana	14	Yamuna	3
Surya	10	Rashtra	10
Kshatriya	9	Krishi	33
Yamuna	3	Sena	20 Approx.
Raja	1	Rudra	3
Sudra	1	Vrihaspati	11
Vaishya	1	Prithavi	1

Social Life 

Evolution of Varna System 

1. The term "vaishya" emerges from the vis or the mass of tribal people. Vis was the unit above "gram" and below "jana". 
2. The unequal division of war booty (with more going to the chief) and influence of religion / knowledge led to the stratification of the society into warriors, priests and rest (vis). 

Women

1. In vedic age, the widow merely had to do a symbolic self immolation act at the death of her husband and it may have been a sign of status. Later on this was cited as the origin of sati with some tweaking of the practice in the religious texts. 
2. Things had not settled down yet. There are many variants of marriages among pandavas only - endogamy, monogamy, polygamy, polyandry and cousin marriage (Arjun and Subhadra).

Education

1. The method of grammar and memorization of vedas was not simple and was fine tuned to making the composition almost unalterable (hymns had to be uttered in the right manner) and thus contributing to the supremacy of brahmans.
2. Education was open to only twice born and the curriculum was such that it was useful only for brahmans. Hence the supremacy of brahmans.

After Life Philosophy

1. Life after death was envisaged in terms of either punishment (you go to the house of clay) or reward (you go to the world of fathers). The idea of transmigration of soul was initially vague and was developed only later.
2. Upanishads encouraged the philosophy that souls were reborn into a life of sorrow or joy depending upon their deeds in the previous life and nothing could be changed now. This was then fitted into the caste hierarchy (higher caste means good deeds and lower caste means bad deeds). Upanishads also encouraged renunciation.

Sacrifices as Ritual and Social Exchange

1. There were occasions when the bards composed eulogies on the exploits of the chiefs and were rewarded with gifts. Gradually it became ritualized with hymns and elaborate sacrifices coming up to bestow legitimacy to the king in exchange for gifts. Gradually the priests began to confer divinity on the kings by the rituals. Sacrifices thus became an instrument of a power struggle between the king and the priest - with the priest eventually winning. These ceremonies initially began to enhance the status of the king but gradually became necessary for him to claim any legitimacy.  
2. In these ceremonies he was supposed to donate all his wealth - either in the preparation of the sacrifice, or at the end of the sacrifice among the brahmans and other people (including craftsmen) and whatever remained had to be destroyed. This donation naturally kept a check on the wealth of the king and hence large states couldn't come up and thus helped in maintaining the supremacy of the brahmans. Further, it was held that such donation was a way of earning even more wealth and thus legitimized the extraction of even more wealth from the vis by the king (hence the statement - the king (later replaced by kshatriya) eats the vis). Only later on when the agriculture production became so much that it was not possible to exhaust the wealth in the sacrifice that the kings were able to accumulate wealth and large kingdoms began to be founded.
3. This situation led to a reaction of some kshatriyas against the brahmans. Thus it comes as no surprise that the founders of Jainism and Buddhism were both kshatriyas or the ideas in the upanishads questioning the sacrifices all came from kshatriyas. Also the republics were controlled by kshatriyas only who didn't confer to the brahmanical traditions and rituals and in turn were condemned by the brahmans (who championed the cause of monarchy).
4. This was extended to others as well and the patron of the sacrifice was now supposed to give a dakshina. The status of the patron depended upon how elaborate sacrifices he conducts and how much dakshina he gives. Soon it was held that a fraction of the benefit from the sacrifice also accrues to the patron. Any kind of material benefit (like property, son etc.) had to be prayed for and this further increased the power of brahmans. 
5. Gradually even more spectacular sacrifices were evolved and now only the higher castes could participate in them. Thus sacrifices worked to reinforce the societal divisions. RItuals also meant a redistribution of resources and thus contributed to social inequalities.
6. As the sacrifices began to grow more elaborate, priests had to specialize in certain function and this led to creation of classes among the priests as well.
7. The worship of agni and soma were central to Indian and Iranian religions. Vedic sacrifices also produced the knowledge of mathematics and anatomy. Also the increased importance of agni meant that instead of burials, dead began to be cremated.
8. The dasas were ridiculed in the vedas for not practicing rituals and instead practicing fertility cults. The growing complexities and exclusions of the rituals finally led to alternate philosophies and sects.

Rig Vedic Gods

The early Vedic religion was naturalistic. Evidently, there were neither temples nor idols. The mode of prayer was recitation of mantras. Sacrifice was offered for Praja (children), Pasu (cattle) and Dhana (wealth) and not for spritual upliftment or misery.

Early Vedic Religion

Believed in one Supreme God Did not believe in idol worship Worshipped the forces of nature as the manifestation of one Supreme God Vedic Gods have been classified into 3 categories - Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Celestial Indra, Agni, Varuna, Surya, Rudra, Yama, Soma, Marut, Dyaus, Vayu and Prajanaya. Prithvi, Saraswati, Usha, aditi were female deities. They were not given the same position as male Gods. People did not worship for spiritual reasons but for the welfare ofPraja & Pashu Recitation of prayers, chanting of Vedic hymns and sacrifices or yajnas were an important part of the worship.

Rig Vedic Gods
Indra	He was the most important divinity. He played the role of a warlord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons. 250 hymns are devoted to him in the Rig Veda. He was associated with thunder and storm and is addressed by various names: Ratheshtha, Jitendra Somapa, Purandra, Varitrahan and Maghayam
Agni	He was the second important divinity. He was intermediary between Gods and men. 200 hymns of the Rig Veda are devoted to him.
Varuna	He was the upholder of Rita or cosmic order or natural order. He personified water.
Soma	He was considered to be the God of plants. An intoxicant drink was also called soma.
Yama	He was the guardian of the world of dead.
Surya	Similar to that of the Greek God Helios
Savitri	The famous Gayatri mantra is addressed to Savitri
Pusan	Lord of jungle path, main function was that of guarding of roads, herdsmen and cattle.
Vishnu	A relatively minor God at that time.
Vayu	Wind God
Dyaus	Father of Heaven
Aditi	Goddess of Eternity
Maruts	Storm Spirits
Gandharvas	Divine Musicians
Ashvins	Healers of diseases and experts in surgical art
Ribhus	Gnomes
Apsaras	Mistresses of Gods
Rudra	An archer of God, whose anger brought disease
Vishvadeva	Intermediate Deities
Aranyani	Goddess of Forest
Usha	Goddess of Dawn
Prithvi	Goddess of Earth

Evolution of Monarchy and Varna system.

 The use of iron tools and cultivation created con­ditions for the transformation of the comparatively egalitarian Early Vedic society into a class-divided social order in the Later Vedic period. The Later Vedic society came to be divided into Brahmans, rajanyas or kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras.

Settled life led to a further crystallisation of this four-fold division of the society. Brahmans, initially merely one of the sixteen classes of priests, emerged as the most important class.

The growing cult of sacrifices enormously added to their power. The kshatriyas constituted the warrior class and came to be looked upon as protectors. The king was chosen from among them.

The rajanya, which already was a superior lineage during the Early Vedic period, now became Kshatriya, i.e., those who held power over a dominion (kshatra), which is the literal meaning of the word 'kshatriya'.

The vaishyas constituted the common people and devoted themselves to trade, agriculture and various crafts and was the tax- paying class.

The vaishyas appear to be the only tribute payers in Later Vedic period, and the kshatriyas are represented as living on the tributes collected from the vaishyas. The shudras were supposed to serve the three higher varnas and formed the bulk of the labouring masses.

All the three higher varnas shared one common feature: they were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread. The fourth Varna, shudra, was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony. With this began the imposition of disabilities on the shudras.

According to some scholars, Brahmans and kshatriyas had become hereditary, and the essential features of the caste system were already developed in the age of the Rigveda. But this view does not appear to be likely, as the terms Brahman and Kshatriya occur very seldom in the Rigveda.

A late hymn (of Mandal X) of the Rigveda, known as Purushasukta, says that when the gods divided Purusha (the Primeval Creator), the Brahman was his mouth; rajanya was made his arms; the vaishya was his thighs; and the shudra sprang from his feet.

This is the only hymn in the Rigveda in which the names rajanya, vaishya, and shudra occur. It would thus appear that towards the very end of the Rigvedic period, the distinction between four varnas had just begun to take shape, foreshadowing the development of the caste system of the future.

In view of the current beliefs, based on the Primeval Creator theory, it is important that according to the Purushasukta, the first three varnas were identical with, not considered to have sprung from, three parts of the Creator, while the last varna, shudra, sprang from the feat of the Creator.

The distinction between the original meaning and this new interpretation is vital. The former implies membership of the same organism and therefore equality in status, while the latter is a deliberate attempt to introduce gradation in rank according to place of origin.

Thus the advocates of the later social changes sought to derive support by wrongly interpreting the mythical con­ception in their favour.

On the basis of Varna, the elite would be a closed group with little or no upward mobility. Recruitment to each group would be strictly through birth. The elite would be drawn from the first three varnas-brahman, Kshatriya and vaishya.

Members of the Brahman group because of their ritual status would automatically be a part of the elite irrespective of their economic status. This applied to some extent to the kshatriyas as well.

But the case of the vaishyas was more complex, since this category could well include members of a low economic group, who, although theoretically an elite group, was actually not a part of the elite group.

Rules of endogamy changed during the Later Vedic period. As against tribal endogamy-marriage within tribe-the Later Vedic people practised gotra exogamy-marrying outside the gotra. The term gotra literally means cow pen.

It signified descent from a common ancestor. The gotra exogamy meant that marriages could not take place between two people belonging to the same gotra.

Thus, the concept of Varna was born and endowed with the following three features: (i) status by birth, (ii) a hierarchical ordering of the members of the society, and (iii) rules of endogamy and ritual purity.

The later Vedic texts also put an emphasis on Varna system. For example, in Aitareya Brahmana, in relation to the prince, brahmana is described as a seeker of livelihood and an acceptor of gifts.

A vaishya is called tribute paying, and to be oppressed at will. A shudra is called the servant of another, to be made to work at will by another, and to be beaten at will.

The Varna system, firmed up with Dharma, universal law, was an attempt to establish a social law for the smooth functioning of the society.

During the later Vedic Age with the shift in the geographical focus, the Vedic people encountered many non-Vedic tribes, interactions with whom led to the emergence of a complex society. Apparently, on this account, the Atharvaveda depicts a host of non-Vedic rituals which were sanctioned by the priests.

At the same time, the priests and the warriors, keen to maintain their superior status and tribal purity, practiced endogamy. It seems the Later Vedic Age was witness to a tussle over the control of the society.

The dominant groups tried to maintain their position by introducing rigid laws; the geo-political compulsions forced them to be less stringent. However, the rules were not cast in iron yet.

The division of the social groups was based on occupation alone. Society was still flexible where one's occupation was not deter­mined by birth. Thus even in the post-Vedic period, the Varna system did not prevent non-kshatriyas from becoming rulers, as did the Nandas and the Mauryas.

Nor did it stop Brahmans from becoming kings, as became the Sungas. Anyway, the concept of Varna during the Later Vedic Age was rudimen­tary in nature. The notion of untouchability for example is absent.

According to Romila Thapar, the key to the understanding of the Varna system lies in not seeing it as a framework of the hierarchical layers of social orders each fitting nearly below the other.

It may be more meaningful to see it as a series of vertical parallels, each Varna (pure or mixed) as an indepen­dent entity with its own hierarchy based either on a tribal identity or an occupational identity.

Monarchy

The transition from pastoralism of the Early Vedic Age to mixed-farming of the subsequent phase had a great impact on the nature of the Later Vedic polity. Tribal identity of the earlier age was replaced by a territorial identity leading to the growth of powerful territorial states.

Many of the famous tribes, such as Bharatas, Purus, Trusts and Turvasus, of the earlier period passed into oblivion. The political life became keener and the struggle for supremacy among different states was of frequent occurrence.

The egalitarian Rigvedic institutions like Sabha, samiti and vidatha began to lose their prominence and came to be dominated by chiefs and rich Nobels. Princes ruled over tribes, but their dominant tribes became identical with territories.

In the beginning each area was named after the tribe which settled there first, but eventually the tribal name became current as the territorial name.

A direct consequence of this development was the emergence of the terms like janapada, meaning the place where the tribe was settled, and rashtra in the Later Vedic texts.

However, the term rashtra was still not used in the sense of a state with well-defined territories. In a passage of the Atharvaveda, the rashtra (territory) is said to have been held by the king and made firm by King Varuna, and gods Brihaspati, Indra and Agni.

As the tribal chiefs came to be associated and identified with particular territories, there were changes in their functions and status. The rajan was now no longer only in-charge of cattle-raids, he was also responsible for the protection of the mahajanapada where his tribe had settled.

The rajanya already enjoying a superior lineage now became the Kshatriya, the literal meaning of which is protector of the fields. The Vis had to pay now for the protection of its fields and presentations or Bali and bhaga were now no longer paid at will.

Now those had become regular tributes and taxes. The increase in the importance of the kshatriyas led to the subordination of the vaishyas to them because they were also the pro­tectors of the field.

Another consequence of it was that the sabha (where the kshatriyas were predomi­nant) became more important than the samiti. It was also the kshatriyas who selected the rajas in the assemblies or the sabhas.

Several kingdoms came to be established during the Later Vedic period. The Kurus ruled in the Kuru- Panchal region (Delhi-Meerut-Mathura). Excavations in the region have revealed settlements belonging to the period 1000-700 BC.

The Kurus fought fratricidal war (better known as the Mahabharata) with their collaterals in 950 BC at Kurukshetra. The kingdom of Koshal, to which belonged Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, was situated to the east of the Ganga-Yamuna confluence.

The kingdom of Kashi was situated in the east of Koshala. Another kingdom was Videha whose kings bore the tide Janaka. Magadha, then of little importance, was located on the southern side of the Ganga.

It is said that when the Kurus and the Panchala merged together, their control of the mahajanapada was complete, i.e. they held the upper and middle reaches of the Ganga- Yamuna doab.

There was no firmly established principle of heredity or primogeniture. Consecratory rituals be­came very important for the ruler in order to assert his authority. Hence, ceremonies like rajasuya, Asvamedha and vajaperya were now performed nil a lavish scale.

These were relatively small affairs earlier, but now they became big to subjugate other rulers and legitimize the king's hold over alien lands. The raja was also required to integrate his lands with resources, economic production and distribution which raised his status.

However, he was still not the sovereign. The fact that he was selected and could be removed (by the kshatriyas) put him under severe constraints. Also, the subordinate rajas, which helped him in his work, could not be removed by him because they were also chiefs in their own rights and were selected, as he was, by the kshatriyas.

This gain in the status of the kshatriyas and the accep­tance of territories as a manifestation of a ruler's power are the two significant features of the polity of the Later Vedic Age.

The territorial monarchy was strengthened by taxation, which made a beginning in the Later Vedic period. Due to settled life and comparatively settled agriculture, peasants were in a position to produce surplus, at least moderately, which could be collected by king as taxes paid in grain and cattle.

They were probably deposited with an officer called sangrihitri or bhagadugha. In the Shatapatha Brahmana, a king is described as a devourer of the people (vishamatta), because he lived on what was realised from them.

The income from taxes enabled the development of monarchy as a state cannot be set up without a regular system of taxes and a professional army, which again depends on taxes.

The increase in the royal power, due to the growth of large territorial states, is duly reflected in the enlarged entourage of the king. Due to income from taxes, the king was in a position to appoint a large number of officials which included suta (charioteer), sangrihitri (treasurer), akshavapa (super­intendent of dancing) and kshattri (chamberlain).

These officials, as well as purohitas, senani and gramani were known as ratnins (jewel-bearers).

The vicissitudes' of the Vedic assemblies also contributed to the rise of moriarchial system. In the territorial states with jurisdiction over relatively larger area, ordinary people distanced themselves from Sabha and samiti as they could not afford to travel long distances to attend the meetings of these assemblies.

This gave an aristocratic character to the Vedic assemblies and took away much of their effectiveness. Some of their activities were taken by the ratnins.

Later Vedic Polity and Economy

Political Organisation: In later Vedic times, the vidatha completely disappeared. The sabha and samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed. Women were no longer permitted to sit in the sabha, and it was now dominated by nobles and Brahmanas. The formation of wider kingdoms made the king more powerful. Tribal authority tended to become territorial. The term rashtra, which indicates territory, first appears in this period. The King performed the rajasuya sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power to him. He performed the asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over an area in which the royal house ran uninterrupted. He also performed the vajapeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen. During this period collection of taxes and tributes, the king officer called sangrihitri.
Even in later Vedic times the king did not possess a standing army. Tribal units were mustered in times of war, and, according to one ritual for success in war, the king had to eat along with his people from the same plate.

Regions and Kings
Eastern King	Samrat
Western King	Suvrat
Northern King	Virat
Southern King	Bhoja
King of middle country	Raja

Imp Ratnins/Officials in Later Vedic Period
Purohita	Chief Priest, in also sometimes referred to as Rashtragopa
Senani	Supreme Commander of army
Vrajapati	Officer-in-Charge of pasture land
Jivagribha	Police Officer
Spasas/Dutas	Spies who also sometimes worked as messengers
Gramani	Head of the village
Kulapati	Head of the family
Madhyamasi	Mediator on disputes
Bhagadugha	Revenue collector
Sangrahitri	Treasurer
Mahishi	Chief Queen
Suta	Charioteer and court minstrel
Govikartana	Keeper of games and forests
Palagala	Messenger
Kshatri	Chamberlain
Akshavapa	Accountant
Sthapati	Chief Justice
Takshan	Carpenter

Kingdoms in the Later Vedic Age
Kingdom	Location
Gandhar	Rawalpindi and Peshawar districts of Western Punjab
Kekaya	On the bank of River Beas, east of Gandhar kingdom
Uttar Madra	Kashmir
Eastern Madra	Near Kangra
Southern Madra	Near Amritsar
Kushinagar	Nothern region of modern Uttar Pradesh
Panchal	Bareilly, Badayun and Farrukhabad districts of modern Uttar Pradesh
Kashi	Modern Varanasi
Koshal	Faizabad region of today's Uttar Pradesh

Occupation: The Aryans now lived a sedentary life, domesticated animal and cultivated on a greater scale than earlier suger-cane. Cattle still constituted the principal form of movable property. Elephants were tamed. However, the idea of private possession of land gradually began to crystallize. Wheat was also cultivated during this period along with barley. Rice is mentioned in sources but was not an important crop at this time. Beans and Sesame and pulses such as Moong, Urad etc. were also known. New arts, artists and craftsmen also emerged i.e. smelters, ironsmiths, carpenters, weavers, leather workers, jewellers, dyers and potters. Trade was also boosted.

Pottery: The later Vedic Aryans used four types of pottery- Black and Red Ware, Black Slipped Ware, Painted Grey Ware(PGW), and Red Ware. The black and red earthen pots were used around 600 BC by the people of Koshala. The Aryans knew copper or bronze and Iron. The introduced the PGW in northern India. It consisted of bowls and dishes, which were used either for rituals or for eating or both. These were mostly found to the upper Gangetic basin.

Currency: A gold piece of specific weight called Satamana is mentioned in Sathapatha-Brahmana. Nishka was the popular currency. Suvarna and Krishnala were two other classes of coins of circulation. Barter system will continued in spite of the presence of metallic coins. Money-lending was a lucrative trade and the interest on loan was moderately charged. The usurer is mentioned as Kusidin.

Later Vedic Society

Social Organisation: The later Vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called the Brahmanas, rajanyas orkshatriyas, vaisyas and shudras, each varna was assigned with its duty. Brahmanas conducted rituals and sacrifices for their clients and for themselves, and also officiated at the festivals associated with agricultural operations. They prayed for the success of their patron in war, and in return the king pledged not to do any harm to hem. Sometimes, the brahmanas came into conflict with the rajanyas, who represented the order of the warrior-nobles, for position of supremacy. Towards the end of the Vedic period, they began to engage in trade. All the three higher varnas shared one common feature, they were known as Dvijas (twice born), i.e., they were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras. The fourth varna was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony, and with its began the imposition of disabilities on the shudras. Outside the caste-system, there stood two important bodies of men, namely, Vratyas and Nishadas.

According to the Aitareya Brahmana, in relation to the prince, the brahmana is described as a seeker of livelihood and an acceptor of gifts but removable at will. A vaisya is called tribute-paying, meant for being beaten, and to be oppressed at will. The worst position is reserved for the shudra. He is called the servant of another. Certain section of artisans such as rathakara or chariot-maker enjoyed a higher status, and were entitled to the sacred thread ceremony. The term Nagara appears for the first time showing joint beginnings of town life. Women were generally giver a lower position. Although some women theologians took part in philosophic discussions and some queens participated in coronation rituals, ordinarily women were thought to be inferior and subordinate to men.

Types of Marriages in the Later Vedic Age
Brahma	Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same varna with Vedic rites and rituals
Daiva	Father gives the daughter to the sacrificial priests as part of fee or dakshina.
Arsa	A token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given.
Prajapati	Marriage without dowry and bride-price.
Gandharva	Marriage by the consent of two parties, often clandestine. A special form of it was swayamvara or self choice.
Asura	Marriage by purchase.
Paisacha	It is seduction of a girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk, hence it can hardly be called a marriage.
Rakshasa	Marriage by Capture

Marriage: Eight types of marriage were prevalent in the later Vedic age. Of these, four (Brahman, Daiva, Arsa and Prajapati) were generally approved and were permissible to Brahmans. These were religious marriages and were indissoluble.

Anuloma Marriage: Marriage of a man below his varna was called Anuloma. It was sanctioned by the sacred texts.

Pratiloma Marriage: Pratiloma marriage was the marriage of a girl or women to one lower than her own varna. It was not sanctioned by the sacred texts.

Gotra System: The institution of gotra appeared in later Vedic times. Literally, it means the cow-pen or the place where cattle belonging to the whole clan are kept. The gotra has been regarded as a mechanism for widening the socio-political ties, as new relationships were forged between hitherto unrelated people. People began to practisegotra exogamy. No marriage could take place between persons belonging to the same gotra or having the same ancestor.

Ashrama System: Ashramas or four stages of life were not well established in early Vedic times. In the post-Vedic texts, we hear of four ashramas: that of brahmachari or student, grihastha or householder, vanaprastha or partial retirement and sanyasa or complete retirement from the world. But only three are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. The last or the fourth stage had not been well-established in Later Vedic times. 4th Ashrama only mentioned in Jabala Upanishad.

Food and Drinks: The staple diet was milk and ghee, vegetables, fruit and barely. Wheat was rarely eaten. On ceremonial occasions at a religious feast or the arrival of a guest, a more elaborate meal usually including the flesh of ox, goat, sheep and birds were taken after being washed with sura. Fish and other river animals were also relished upon. The guests were never served vegetarian foods, or at least one non-vegetarian food was compulsory.

Dress: Clothes were simple. Two piece clothes were normally worn: uttariya or the upper garment and antariya or the lower garment. There was no difference between the clothes of male and female. Ornaments were used by both the sexes and bangles were worn by privileged few, Shoes were used. Use of oil, comb, mirror razors, hair ointment and a few cosmetics was known.

Amusements: Music, both vocal and instrumental, was the major source of amusements. Playing of veena, drum flute, harp and cymbals were more common, also were dance. Chariot-racing and gambling were other sources of amusement.

Education: It was for a privileged few. Only Brahamanas and Kshatriyas were allowed to get education. Even women education was discouraged and the study of Vedic literature were forbidden to women in spite of the fact that a few gifted women scholars were present at the time and female teachers were also there.
The subject taught were veda, itihasa, grammer, mathematics etihcs, dialectics, astronomy, military science, fine arts, music and medical science.s

Religion in Later Vedic Period

The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their former importance. On the other hand Prajapati, the creator, came to occupy the supreme position in later Vedic pantheon. Rudra, the god of animals, became important in later Vedic times and Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people. In addition, some symbolic objects began to be worshipped, and we notice signs of idolatry. Pushan, who was supposed to look after cattle, came to be regarded as the god to the sudras. Important female deities during the Later Vedic Age were: Usha (goddess of Dawn), Aditi (Mother of Gods), Prithvi (Earth Goddess), Aryani (Forest Goddess) and Saraswati (River deity). The mode of worship changed considerably. Prayers continued to be recited, but they ceased to be the dominant mode of placating the gods. Sacrifices became far more important, and they assumed both public and domestic character. The guest were known as the goghna or one who was fed on cattle. The priests who officiated at sacrifices were regarded generously and givendakshinas or gifts.

Chief Priests
The Chief priests who were engaged in performing the sacrifices were:- Hotri: The invoker, he recited hymns from Rig Veda Adhvaryu: The executor, he recited hymns from Yajur Veda. Udgatri: The singer, he recited hymns from Sama Veda The Chief Priests received voluntary offering from the people called Bali

Important Vedic Rituals

Rajasuya: The King's influence was strengthened by rituals. He performed this sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power on him. Asvamedha: A King performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over the area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. The ceremony laster for three days at the end of which horse sacrifice was performed. Vajapeya: A king performed the Vajpeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen. The ritual lasted for seventeen days and was believed not only to restore the strength of the middle-aged king but also to elevate him from the position to raja of that of samrat Garbhadhana: A ceremony which is performed to promote conception in women Pumsayam: This ritual is performed to procure a male child Semontonayam: It is ritual performed to ensure the safety of the child in the womb. Jatkarma: It is a birth ceremony performed before the cutting of the umbilical cord. Culakarma: It is a ritual, also known as tonsure, performed for boys in their third year. Upanayana: It is an initiation ceremony to confor dvija(twice horn) status of boys of the higher varnas in their eight year.

Vedic Literature

FOUR VEDAS
Samveda
Rhthmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda "Book for Chants" contains 1,549 hymns, meant to be sung at the 'soma' sacrifice by a special class of Brahmanas called Udgatris. But the Samaveda has very little original value. Has only 75 fundamental hymns Karnataka - Jaiminga Gujarat - Kanthun Maharashtra - Ranayaniya Sung by Udgatri
Rigveda
Collection of hymns Oldest of all vedas Associated of 1017 hymns or Suktas after adding "Blhilya Sukta" number in 1028 Compiled in 10 'mandalas' & 8 'Akhtaks'. Also contains the famous Gayatri Mantra II, III, IV, V, VI & VII are oldest mandalas I, VIII, IX, X are latest mandalas. The Tenth "Mandalas" or chapter which has the "Purushasukta" hymn, was probably added later. Mandala IX is completely devoted to 'Soma'. Mandala II to VII were created by Grita Samada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaj, Vashistha, VIII Kanwa and Angira, IX Soma
Yajurveda
Book of sacrifical prayers Rituals of yajnas Is sung of priest "Adhavaryu" Its mantras tell us how the sacrifices were to be performed and what part the "Adhvaryus"- the Brahmanas who performed the manual work in the arrangement of sacrifice were to play at the time of sacrifice. Has been compiled in "fourth path" Has been divided into, Krishna(black) Yajurveda & Shukla(white) Yajurveda Prose text
Atharvaveda
Mantras for magic spells Populate ritualistic system & superstitions Associated with "Saunkiya" and "Paiplad" community Collection of 711/731/760 hymns Not included in 'Trai' Has been divided in 20 "Kandas" 18th, 19th & 20th 'Kandas' are later works Provides freedom from evils spirits. Oldest text on Indian Medicine.

The vast literature of the Aryans is divided into two parts - Sruti and Smriti 

1. Sruti Literature: The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved, which means 'spiritual knowledge'. The Vedas are four in number - Rig Veda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rig Veda contains a references only to the first three Vedas, which suggests that the fourth Veda was composed at some later date.

The Vedic literature is usually divided into three periods:-

1. The Mantra period when the Samhitas were composed
2. Brahaman period when the Brahamanas, Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed
3. the Sutra period.

These three periods succeeded or overlap each other.

Brahmanas are massive prose text which contain speculation of the meaning of the hymns, give precepts for their application, relate stories of their origin in connection with sacrificial rites and explain the secret meaning of the later. 

Vedas and their Brahmanas
1.	Rigveda	Aitereya and Kaushitaki
2.	Samaveda	Tandya and Jaiminiya
3.	Yajurveda	Tattiriya and Satpatha
4.	Atharvaveda	Gopatha

The Aranyakas are the concluding parts of the Brahamanas. It doest not lay much stress on rites, rituals and sacrifices, but merely contain the philosophy and mysticism. The lead with the problems of soul, origin and elements of universe and the creation of universe. 

Aranyaka
Literarily, it means 'Jungle' Provides description of Moral Science and Philosophy Provides details of hermits and saints who lived in Jungles Give stress on meditation Protests the system of 'Yajnas'

It would be appropriate to describe Upanishadas as mystic writings. There are 108 Upanishads in all, the most prominent of them being Ish, Prasana, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogaya, Kathoupanishad, Ishopanishad, Brehadaranyaka, etc.

Upanishada

Literary meaning is 'Satra' (to sit near masters feet) in which Guru offers band of knowledge to their disciples Is a combination of Tatva-mimansa and philosophy They are also called "Vedanta" Primitive upanishada are "Brahadaranyaka" and "Chandogya" Later Upnishada like "Katha" and "Swetaswatar" have been written in poetic forms. Brahma is the summary of philosophy, which is the only a 'truth' in the world. Knowledge awards salvation says Upanishadas Oldest possibility Narsinghpurvatapani Latest possibility Allopanishada in Akbar's reign

2. Smriti Literature: Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire body of post-Vedic classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping subjects:-

1. The Vedangas: They refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas. The Vedangas are conventionally divided into six heading namely:- (i) Kalpa or the ritual canon, including thedharma shastras or legal codes, (ii)Jyotisha or astronomy, (iii) Siksha or phonetics, (iv)Chhanda or metre (v) Nirukta or etymology (vi)Vyakarana (Grammer)
2. The Shad-Darsana: Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, namely Nyaya, 'Vaiseshikha', Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.
3. Itihasa: Legendary or semi-legendary works, specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharata and often extended to the Puranas.
4. Puranas: Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily coloured with the superstitions. The Puranas represent the most corrupt form of Hinduism. They are 18 in number
   

   The Eighteen Puranas
   1	Brahma Purana	2	Vishnu Purana
   3	Shiva Purana	4	Padma Purana
   5	Shrimad Bhagwat Purana	6	Agni Purana
   7	Narad Purana	8	Markandey Purana
   9	Bhavishya Purana	10	Ling Purana
   11	Varah Purana	12	Vaman Purana
   13	Brahm Vaivertya Purana	14	Shanda Purana
   15	Surya Purana	16	Matsya Purana
   17	Garuda Purana	18	Brahmand Purana

5. Upaveda: Also known as the auxiliary Vedas, they deal with medicine, architecture, erotics, archery and various arts and crafts. These were partly derived from original Vedic texts and were traditionally associated with one or other of the Vedas.
6. Tantras: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain antinomian Buddhist scholars
7. Agamas: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and Shaktas.
8. Upangas: They are a generic name for any collection of treatises although traditionally confined to the philosophical systems of 'Nyaya' and 'Mimansa' - the 'Dharma Sutras' the 'Puranas' and the 'Tantras'

3. Epics: Some historians regard the Later Vedic Period as the Period of Epics. The Mahabharata and the Ramayanaare the two great epics of this period.
Ramayana: It is said to have been composed by the sage, Valmiki. The incident related in it precedes theMahabharata by about a hundred and fifty years. The story of Ramayana is of indigenous origin and had existed in ballad form in Prakrit, in more than one version. It was rewritten in Sanskrit and augmented with many 'Shlokas'. The epic was given a Brahmanical character which was not visible in the original work. It is also known as Adi Kavya. Evidence places the oldest part of the Ramayana to before 350 BC. The reference in the epic to the mingled hords of Yavanas and Shakas suggests that it received accretions in the Graeco-Scythian period and may have acquired its final shape by about AD 250.

Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses and is divided into 18 paravas (books). This book is usually assigned to Rishi Ved Vyas, but scholars have expressed doubts if such a great work could have been accomplished by one single person. The story itself occupies only about one-fourth of the poem. It is a tale about conflict between Aryans-Kaurava and Pandava. The rest is episodical comprising cosmology, theogony, state craft, the science of war, ethics, legendary history, mythology, fairy tales and several digressional and philosophical interludes, of which the best known is the Bhagavad Gita

Vedic Doctrine of Hinduism

By the end of the Later Vedic Age, six prominent schools of Hindu Philosophy had been established. They are as follows: 

Darshans	Authors	Year of Beginning	Original Book	Theme
Nyaya	Gautama	6th BC	Nyaya Sutra	It is a logical quest for God. It tells that the material powerMaya, with the help of God, becomes the universe.
Vaisheshik	Kanada	6th BC	Vaisheshik Sutra	It aims is to receive happiness in this life and finally ultimate liberation through the attachment of true knowledge of the Divine.
Sankhya	Kapila	6th BC	Sankhya Sutra	It explains that the aim of Sankhya is to eliminate all kinds of physical and mental pains and to receive liberation.
Yoga	Maharishi Patanjali	2nd BC	Yog Sutra	It has four chapters and accepts three kinds of evidences for determining the aim of life.
Purva Mimansa	Jaimini	4th BC	Purva Mimansa Sutra	It is condensed explanation of Vedic theme and at the same time, the classification of its issues.
Vedanta (Uttara Mimansa)	Maharishi Vyasa	4th BC	Uttara Mimansa Sutra	It explains that Brahama Sutra is for that person who has a real deep desire to know God. True liberation could only be attained by lovingly surrendering to Him.

Vedic Civilisation

Origin of Indian Music - Samveda Mention of Word 'Shudra' - Rigveda 10th Mandala Gayatri Mantra - Rigveda Mention of word 'Yajna' - Brahmana Somaras (drink) - Rigveda (9th Mandala) Varna - Rigveda Four fold division of Society - Rigveda 10th Mandala Mention of four Ashrams - Jabala Upanishada War between Aryan & Dasas - Rigveda Transmigration of Soul - Brahadaranyka Upanishada

Five divisions of India - Aiteraya Brahamana Wife and Husband are complementary - Satapathabrahmana Battle of Ten kings - Rigveda (7th Mandala) Superiority of Brahmins - Aiteraya Brahmana Rajanaya - Rigveda 10th Mandala Marut as Agriculturist - Satpatha Brahmana Satyameva Jayate - Mundaka upanishada Pashupath Shiva - Atharveda Vishnu - Satapatha Brahmana Conversion between Yam & Nachiketa - Katha Upanishada