SOURCES : Archaelogical Sources; Literary Sources

1. Sources:  Archaeological sources: Exploration, excavation, epigraphy, numismatics, monuments  Literary sources:  (a)Indigenous: Primary and secondary; poetry, scientific literature, literature, literature in regional languages, religious literature. (b)Foreign accounts: Greek, Chinese and Arab writers.

Archaeological Monuments,Excavations and Explorations

• Temples and Sculpture are found all over the country right from the Gupta period up-to recent times which, show architectural and artistic history of Indians
• The discovery of Mohenjodaro and Harappa which pushed back the antiquity of Indian Culture and Civilization by two thousand years.
• Human activities started in the subcontinent as early as 2 million years ago(Kashmir and Narmada valley)
• Archaeological discoveries have shown that tradition of rock paintings in India goes back more than twelve thousands years.
• The archaeological evidence is obtained by the systematic and skilled examination of building monuments, and work of art.
• The credit for excavating the pre-Aryan past goes to Sir William Jones of Asiatic Society of Bengal (established on 1st January 1784). 
• General Sir Alexander Cunningham, one of its Royal Engineers, dugged out the ruins of ancient site of pre-Aryan culture. From his arrival in India in 1831, Cunningham, the Father of Indian Archaeology devoted every minute he could spare from his military duties to the study of material remains of ancient India, until in 1862, the Indian government established the post of Archaeological Surveyor, to which he was appointed. Until his retirement in 1885, he devoted himself to the unravelling of India's past with complete single-heartedness.
• In 1901, Lord Curzon revived and enlarged the Archaeological Survey and appoint John Marshall its Director General. The discovery of India's oldest cities dating back to the second Inter-Glacial period between 400,000 and 200,000 BC in 1921 by Daya Ram Shahni was the biggest achievement of Archaeological Survey of India under Marshall, the first relics of which were noticed by Cunningham. 
• The cities discovered were named Harappa and Mohenjodaro and the civilisation as the Indus Valley Civilisation.
• In 1922, an Indian officer of the Archaeological Survey, R.D.Banerjee, founded further seals at Mohenjodaro in Sindh, and recongnized that they were remains of a pre-Aryan civilisation of great antiquity. Under Sir John Marshall's direction, the sites were systematically excavated from 1924 until his retirement in 1931.
• The horizontal and vertical excavations have helped uncover the period-wise sequences of cultres and of ancient remains.
• Excavations have brought to light the cities which the people established around 2500 BC. They also reveal the layouts of the settlements in which people lived, the types of pottery they used, the form of house in which people dwelt, the kind of food they ate, and the types of implements they used.The vast variety of rich vegetation and congenial regular weather chain suited the human habitat and the pages of history and replete with the stories of their linux. 

Epigraphy

• Inscriptions are the most reliable evidence and their study is called epigraphy 
• The writing system of Ashokan inscriptions are considered to be the earliest (Because Harappan  language is still undecipherable)
• These are mostly carved on gold, silver, iron, Copper, bronze plates or stone pillars, rocks temple walls and bricks and are free from interpolations.
• Inscriptions again are mainly of three types:- royal eulogy, official documents like royal rescripts, boundary marks, deeds, gift, etc. and private records of votive, donative or dedicative type.
• Inscriptions in Prakrit, Pali, Sanskrit, Telgu, Tamil and other languages have been discovered. But most of the inscriptions are in Brahmi and Kharosti scripts.
• James Prinsep, the Secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal succeeded for the first time in deciphering the Brahmi script. Among the inscriptions of ancient past, those of emperor Ashoka are by far the best historical evidence about his reign.
• Inscriptions of Kharvela, king of Kalinga, Saka rular Rudradamana, Allahabad Prasasti by Harisena, the court poet of Samudragupta, are important evidences for the reconstruction of the history of India.
• Inscriptions and Women : two categories of inscriptions related to women(a)inscriptions issued by women (b)sati stones 
• inscriptions issued by women like nayanika of satavahanas, prabhavati of vakatakas, didda of kashmir, inscriptions issued by women donors who are sometimes found along with their husbands and sometimes single (like those women who donated to buddhist monastries, rock cut cave temples,brahmanic temples)
• (b)sati stones -plenty of them, they generally give details about the lady like her name, age, caste etc. what can be inferred from these? 1. their property rights 2. their economic status 3. their autonomy in decision making, their political power 4. their social conditions

Numismatics

• the study or collection of coins, banknotes, and medals
• Thousands of ancient Indian coins have been discovered from which idea about the contemporary economic condition, currency system, development of the matallurgical art has been obtained. The image of Samudragupta playing on a lyre gives us an idea of his love of music. From the dates on the coins, it has been possible to understand the contemporary political history. Samudragupta's Aswamedha (Aswamedha)coins and Lion-slayer coins (Lion-slayer coins)gives us an idea of his ambition and love of hunting.
• Earliest coins, called Punch marked, are in silver and copper.

Punched Marked Coins 

Characteristics 

1. These coins were made from flat sheets of metals with symbols hammered later.  
2. They continued to circulate in many parts till early centuries AD and in peninsula for much longer.
3. These coins were most likely issued by state though the possibility of guild issued coins in some areas cannot be ruled out.
4. The marks included sun, tree, mountain, wheel, animals, geometric designs etc. These could have religious or political significance.   
5. Often they also have a secondary punch mark which was added later without reheating the coin. 

Classification

They are divided into 4 series based on their weight, number and nature of punch marks and area of circulation. 

1. The Taxila-Gandhara type in NW had heavy weight standard and single punch.
2. The Kosala type in middle Gangetic valley had heavy weight and multiple punches.  
3. Magadhan style had lighter weight and multiple punches 
4. Avanti type in W India had light weight and single punch.

Significance

1. The discovery of many hoards suggests that tax payment was also done in cash.
2. These coins have been found in S India as well in megalithic age suggesting development of N-S trade. Items of import from S were gold, pearls and precious stones.   

Saka-Pahlava / Saka-Scythian Coins

Significance 

1.  One series of coins of Saka king, Moga, found at Taxila show Greek god Zeus with a scepter in his left hand and Goddess Nike in his right indicating he conquered Indo-Greeks of Gandhara region.
2. Some coins suggest the practice of conjoint rule.  

Indo-Greek Coins

Characteristics 

1. They circulated to south of Hindukush. They are well minted, die-struck, round and usually made of silver. First coins to be found south of Hindukush were of Dimitrius. His empire extended up to east Punjab and Sind. But while he was in India there wa sa revolt back home in Bactria by Eukratidis and after conquering Bactria he pushed towards India as well. Probably he could extend his empire up to western Punjab and Jhelum. 
2. They bear the name, portrait of the kings on one side and religious symbols on the other. They were the first coins which can be definitely attributed to any kings.  

Significance  

1. Coins of Menander (found as far north as Kabul to as far south as Mathura) and Strato show them slowly aging from teens to old men indicating their long rules.
2. Many coins have been issued jointly indicating conjoint rule.
3. The reverse of the coins usually had religious symbols indicating the religion of the king. Some of their coins are of Athenian 'owl' type indicating continued ties with Mediterranean (since such coins were in circulation around Mediterranean). Such symbols were Indian indicating their indianization. Deities could be depicted iconographically or as symbols. They also tell us about the spread of various religions in that time and also about the secular nature of the greek polity. In the choice of motifs, the copper coins were generally more eclectic and specific to the region.
4. They followed Indian weight system indicating their indianization.
5. These coins were bilingual and biscript indicating that coins were minted keeping regional needs in mind. Scripts used were Greek and Kharosti.
6. Some coins were restruck indicating conflicts or succession. 
7. It changed the tradition of coin minting in India. Until then coins were of irregular shape and only some signs were punched on them. Now they became much more standardized and the image of the ruler began to appear.

Impact of Greek Contacts

1. In war strategies, drama, coin minting, calendar, medicinal system, astrology, philosophy.

Satvahna Coins 

Characteristics 

1. Most Satvahna coins were die struck though some were casted as well.
2. They were mainly lead coin, though copper and bronze money was also issued. 
3. The legends were generally in Prakrit language in Bramhi script. But the portrait coins use a dravidian language and Brahmi script.

Significance               

Gautamiputra Satkarni (106-130 AD)

1. He restruck Saka king Nahapana's coins at Jogalthambi in Nasik which indicates he had defeated the Sakas. His coins have also been found in Malwa, Maharastra, Kathiawar, AP and Karnataka.   

Yajnasri Satkarni (165-194 AD)

1. They depict a ship and have been found from Malwa and Gujarat indicating he had recaptured these areas from Sakas.    

Saka-Kshatrap Coins  

1. The largest number of coins were issued by W Sakas who benefitted from the sea trade of Gujarat. They issued large number of silver coins. 

Kshaharatas 

Bhumak

1. His coins are found in coastal Gujarat, Malwa and Ajmer. 
2. He originally owed allegiance to Kanishka. His coins are in Brahmi and Kharosti. 

Nahapana (119-25 AD)

1. His gold and silver coins style him rajan. They have been found from Ajmer and Nasik. His capital was Minnagara and his empire stretched from Lower Indus, Rajasthan, Malwa, Gujarat, N Maharastra.
2. Since none of his coins mention any overlord, he ruled more or less independently. 
3. More than 8K coins of Saka king Nahapana have been found in Nasik, restruck by Gautamiputra Satkarni. This tells us that Gautamiputra Satkarni had indeed defeated the Saka king.   

Kushana Coins

Kadphises Coins

Kadphises I

1. He issued copper coins in imitation of Roman coins.  
2. His coins were found south of Hindukush indicating Kushana incursion into India began in his rule. His initial coins tell us he was a feudatory of the last Greek king, Hermius. But later on he began to issue coins in his own name.
3. His coins show an association with Buddhism. 
4. The practice of conjoint rule can be seen from his later coins. 
5. His coins use Greek script on one side and Kharosti on the other.

Kadphises II

1. He crossed the Indus and captured Taxila and Punjab as well. He issued gold coins even as far as Bengal and Odisha. But the gold coins could have circulated there for intrinsic value as well. This at least indicates trade relations.
2. His copper coins show an association with Siva as they show images of Siva, Nandi and trident. 
3. He assumes very high sounding titles in his coins indicating the presence of a feudatory system.
4. His coins use Greek script on one side and Kharosti on the other.

Kushana Coins

Characteristics   

1. These coins were dinar type gold coins.  
2. The coins were issued west of Indus only though their empire included Gangetic basin as well.  
3. For day-to-day transactions, there were copper and lead coins. The presence of large number of copper coins is a proof that the monetization level in the economy had increased to a great extent even among the common people. The standardization of the coins also shows that the monetization had penetrated deep enough among in the economy.
4. In one set of coins his name is written in Greek while in the other in Persian script. In his gold coins, the obverse has his own image while the reverse has the image of a god / goddess. 

Significance  

1. The dinar type coins obviously indicate Roman influence.  
2. The decreasing purity of the coins with time indicate decline of Kushana prosperity. 
3. The Kushanas use the title 'devaputras' indicating attempts to link divinity with kingship. 
4. Kanishka's coins show Indian (Buddha, Uma, Siva), Greek as well as Iranian (Mayo the moon and Maero the sun) religious symbols. This indicates his religious tolerance in terms of state policy. His successor Huvishka's coins show both Buddhism and Sivaism while his successor Vasudeva's coins show Sivaism. It also shows that Sivaism was the most popular religion in that region along with Buddhism.
5. The use of Bactrian language in his coins indicates that Bactria was the centre of his empire. 

Gupta Coins 

Characteristics 

1. The Guptas issued large number of gold coins called dinar. The obverse generally had a representation of the king and reverse a deity.
2. The silver coins had the king on the obverse and a motif (garuda) on the reverse. Copper coins are rare.       

Significance

1. Earliest coins have been found in UP indicating UP was the beginning site of the Guptas. Some coins of a prince Kacha after CG-1 have been found indicating SG had a political adversary who he eliminated.
2. Gupta coins throw light on the military trends of the age. Horsemen are shown on the coins, not chariots or elephants. This shows that horsemen were increasing in importance and chariots and elephants decreasing.   
3. Garuda indicates mark of Vishnu. Images of durga and laxmi on the coins indicate shakti worship was becoming popular. Ashvamedha coins indicate prevalence of brahmanical rituals among the ruling class to claim legitimacy. These coins also throw light on script of the age and are pieces of miniature art.
4. Gupta gold coins were 10g each and were found only in urban centers and along the trade routes thus indicating they were not used by commoners. Gupta copper coins are very few (no copper coins have been recovered before CG II except Ramgupta and even after that they remain rare), which suggest the depth of monetization of economy was very shallow. Coins were not used in day-to-day transactions by common people. Even the literature tells us gold coins were used by the big merchants in big transactions and commoners used barter or shells or copper powder (Fa-Hein). The coins were also getting debased towards the later years of the empire. LR was also paid in kind indicating monetization was not high.
5. They show the qualities expected of a ruler - warrior, brave, sacrifices and protector of social order, patron of art.  
6. CG I's coin show him with his Licchavi wife indicating Licchavis were still an important political force. His coins were the first to have the title maharajadhiraja indicating he was the first important ruler. It also indicates the feudal nature of polity. 
7. SG's coins tell us he was an illustrious warrior. His coins mention that he performed  ashvamedha yajna and was invincible. SG's coins show him in various poses - indicating various qualities he possessed or claimed to possess. Archer type coin, battle-axe type, killing a tiger, ashvamedha type, standard type (he holds a staff and performs a sacrifice), veena type. The tiger type coins show he had conquered Bengal since tigers are only found there. His title in the coins also indicates his conquests.
8. CG II's coins contain the titles - param-bhagvata (which tells us about his being vaishnavite and the divine association of kingship) and vikramaditya. This tells us he was a vaishnavite and defeated a foreign ruler, possibly Saka. His silver coins also tell us that he defeated the sakas because silver coins were circulated by Sakas only.
9. Kumargupta's peacock coins indicate he was a follower of Kartikeya. His coins also show him performing ashvamedha yajna.
10. Skandagupta also uses the title vikramaditya indicating he defeated the Huns.
11. These coins tell us about the metallurgical skills, level of prosperity and indication of monetization in the economy. They were also called dinars indicating Roman trade links. Many Gupta coins have been found in hoards and some are in mint condition which (together with their aesthetic beauty) led some scholars to believe that they were meant for presentation only and not circulation. But obviously this was not the case.

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Literary Sources

(a)Indigenous

• Primary and secondary; poetry, scientific literature, literature, literature in regional languages, religious literature
• The ancient Indian literature were mostly religious in nature and contains no definite date for events and kings eg. the Puranas and the epics. 
• Vedic literature has no trace of political history but has a reliable glimpses of culture and civilisation of the age.

Sanskrit Literature

Religious Literature

1. Brahmanical sources disapprove of gana sanghas since they didn't perform the rituals nor subscribed to brahmanical rhetoric or observe the rules of varna. This disapproval is extended to towns in general though buddhist and jain sources praise both.
2. The Sanskrit Buddhist literature of Mahayana tells us about the economic life and various occupations flourishing in the post-Mauryan age. 
3. Manu was the famous smriti in post Mauryan age, Yajnavalkya, Brihaspati, Narad and Katyanayana were famous in Gupta age and Medhatithi in post Gupta age.

Purana / Epic Literature

1. The myth about Prithu, the first ruler, clearing the forests and introducing cultivation and cattle herding reflects the early settlements and expansion of Aryans. The dichotomy between the kingdom / settlement and the forests also reflects the tension between settlements and forest inhabitants.
2. The story of flood has a connection with Hebrew legend which could have migrated on to Mesopotamia and then Harappa.
3. When the Puranas were finally compiled and revised, there were 2 lineages - solar and lunar - and all dynasties tried to claim descent from one of these.
4. Epic literature is not history but a way of looking at history - reflects the norms of the generation looking at the history.

Vedic Literature as a Reflection
Racial Debate - Aryans vs Dasas / Dasyus / Panis

1. Earlier it was held that they were different races. The hymn in Rig Veda about the aryan varna and the dasa varna is taken as a supporting evidence (varna means skin color). But more likely the color was used as a symbolic classifier to express the differences.
2. This is supported by a lower number of references to the difference in skin color and higher number of references to the difference in language, rituals etc. 
3. The panis were said to be cattle lifters and hence disliked (along with different language and religion) and not because of any (hypothetical) racial considerations.
4. In Avesta, dasa and dasyu refer to 'other people'. It was only later that the term dasa came to be used for someone subordinate or enslaved. The later decline indicates a transition to agricultural economy since in a pastoral economy slaves are difficult to keep. 
5. The reference indicating 'flat nose' means no mouth or person speaking different language.

Interaction Between Aryans and the Inhabitants

1. The inhabitants were settled communities while Aryans were pastoral nomads. Interaction - hostile as well as mutually beneficial - is natural. Thus some dasa chiefs are referred to as enemies and raiding their cattle was a justified occupation in Rig Veda. Some chiefs were won over as they have been mentioned as patrons of vedic rituals. Some had trade relations and also that agriculturalists allow pastoral cattle to graze in their fields after the harvest while it also provides manure.
2. This interaction can also be seen in terms of the exchange of words. Thus we have many dravidian elements creeping into Vedic sanskrit and specially into the later vedas.

Secular Literature

Mahabhashya by Patanjali

1. Tells us about the Sunga period.

Mudrarakshasha (by Vishakhadutta)

1. It tells us about the contemporary life of the time CGM came to power.   

Arthasastra

1. It consists of 15 books - 5 on internal administration, 8 on external relations and 2 miscellaneous. It ranks artha superior to dharma and kama as the latter 2 follow from the former. 
2. The entire discussion of statecraft is from the point if view of a would-be-ruler and is theoretical and normative.
3. There is a view that it was composed in Mauryan times.  This is backed by 2 verses i the texts referring to Kautilya and Nandas. Later works  in history also acknowledge this view. The outline of an elaborate administrative setup and generous cash salaries to officials indicate that the author had a large empire in mind.
4. But there is also a view that it was not composed in Mauryan times. The presence of Kautilya's name could mean 'the views as held by Kautilya'. There is no reference to Kautilya in Patanjali's Mahabhashya. But Mahabhashya was a grammar book referring to CGM's court only for examples. There is no reference of Kautilya in Megasthenes. But his original work is gone and we only have bits and pieces in references. The are contradictions between the two books. But Arthasastra was only a theoretical book.

(a) Politics

1. It defines the concept of state as saptang rajya or having 7 limbs. King, bureaucracy, treasury, territory, army, foreign relations and justice.
2. It emphasizes that a king's duty is to safeguard the varna based social order and uses the term dharmapravartak for him.
3. It asserts that the king must have supreme power.

(b) Economy

1. It tells us that the state had extensive control over economy.
2. There were 27 adhyakshas (superintendents) to regulate economic activities.
3. The state had monopoly over multiple sectors including liquor, pasture lands and manufacture of arms.
4. A detailed list of taxes is given covering almost all economic activities.
5. The importance of proper tax assessment is emphasized upon tax collection and storage.

(c) Society

1. It bans renunciation of worldly life without providing for dependents.
2. It talks about 9 type of slaves.
3. On shudras, it tells us that shudras were allowed to enlist in the army, work in agriculture and own property.
4. The sacrosanct concept of marriage was broken in the book. It allows for divorce under certain conditions. 

Post - Mauryan Period

1. The Junagarh inscription of rudradaman (a saka) is in sanskrit (in fact first inscription entirely in sanskrit) while that of Asoka is in prakrit. This conveys the spirit of the historical change where sanskrit was increasingly dominating the elite circles and association with it was considered prestigious. The inscription also is an early example of what was to become prashasti or eulogy.
2. Many inscriptions also talk about investments made by the kings with particular guilds like the Saka nasik inscription talks about the king investing in the guilds of weavers, potters etc. Clearly these occupations would have been socially acceptable (although claimed otherwise by the brahmanical literature) otherwise the king and the upper classes wouldn't have invested in them. This indicates that the brahmanical literature was more of a normative version according to the perspective of a few brahmans rather than a descriptive version of how the society functioned.

Literature in Post Mauryan Period

1. Sanskrit kavya style developed under royal patronage. The Junagarh inscription is the first example of long Sanskrit kavya style inscription. Ashvaghosha was a famous Sanskrit kavya poet and he lived in the court of Kushanas. He composed Sarioutraprakaran (a story of conversion by Buddha), Buddhacharita (a biography of Buddha) and Saundarananda which are fine specimens of Sanskrit kavya. Another writer Bhasa wrote Svapnavasavdattam which was based on court activities. Unlike Ashvaghosha whose plays were meant for a larger audience, Bhasa's work was meant for court audience only.
2. The growth of Mahayana led to the composition of Buddhist Avadanas literature. This genre included works like Mahavastu and Divyavadana and was written in hybrid Sanskrit. Even the philosopher Nagarjuna chose to write in Sanskrit using it in Buddhist philosophy. This shows ascendency of Sanskrit as the language of elite. 

Literature in Gupta Period

(a) Cultural Reflections

1. Malvikagnimitra: Talks about Pushyamitra Sunga's Ashvamedha yajna, his fight with Vidharbha and Indo-Greeks. 
2. Kumar Sambhav: Reflects the growing Siva bhakti currents of the age. Kalidasa was himself a Siva worshipper and this work shows many aspects of the Siva bhakti.
3. Kamasutra tells us that painting art form was studied in a systematic way.
4. The ornate style of writing developed in this period.

(b) Social Reflections

1. Sudrak's Mrichkatikam is a break from other literature in the sense that it deals with the lives of commoners. Its protagonist is a poor brahman. Different characters from different regions speak in their regional dialect here which tells us about the society. It tells us about the different social classes present at that time.
2. Kamasutra tells us about the life of an urbanite who is well fed and well kept.

Literature (Primarily Smriti Literature) in Early Medieval Age

(a) Political

1. Theory of kingship: Contemporary smriti literature give unlimited power to the king but yet place him in the bounds of religious and conventional norms. Medhatithi Smriti tells us that the king gets his taxes in return for providing security to the tax payers. Moreover if he doesn't protect the poor, weak and brahmans he will not achieve heavens. He goes on to say that the king has to protect even those who don't pay taxes but if he doesn't fulfill his duties despite getting taxes he is liable to face public discontent. Vishwarup's smriti goes one step further and says that it is legitimate for public to remove an exploitative king. But at the same time there are other smritis as well which talk of divine rights / origins of king.

(b) Social

1. On brahmans: Medhatithi frees brahmans from corporal punishment and fines but limits this to only 'learned' brahmans. Matsyapuran frees them from capital punishment but advocates their exile and branding. Vishwarup smriti however says there is no harm in giving capital punishment to an exploitative brahman. The literature of this age begins to make distinctions even among brahmans particularly based on their region. They hold brahmans in south, Odisha and AP in low light. 
2. On kshatriyas: Lay down the usual duties for kshatriyas and rajputs.
3. On vaishyas: Lay down the usual duties for vaishyas.
4. On kayasthas: Ridicule them.
5. On slaves: The literature further tells us that the slaves were used mainly for dirty household work only though the (buddhist) literature also mentions their employment for agricultural work in some cases. The temples and mathas, however, used to employ the slaves in agriculture in a big way. The literature of this age also doesn't give us any information about the property rights of the slaves and their freedom (not even by working very hard and pleasing the master) so it can be inferred that the condition of slaves had definitely worsened from the previous period. The master had full right over the life of the slave, he could beat him, treat him in any way he pleased and was not liable even if the slave died due to torture and ill treatment.
6. On shudras: Parashar and Laghu Vyasa smritis forbid any touch or food touched by shudra. Medhatithi advocates servitude of shudras but still allows them personal freedom. He says some shudras used to study grammar. Narad smriti even advocates shudras to take up arms in emergency and defend. But all these are exceptions only.
7. On untouchables: Many new classes and tribes were added to untouchables and new disabilities imposed.
8. On marriage: Medhatithi allows anulom (higher caste male and lower caste female) marriages as exceptions and says the caste of the offspring will be that of mother in such a marriage. Narad smriti bans inter caste marriages. Incest is prohibited.
9. On remarriage of women: Medhatithi completely prohibits remarriage of women while narad, parashar smritis allow remarriage in case of death, abandonment, missing husband. They also allow niyoga. 
10. On feudal society: We find increasing references in the literature of this age to samantas, their classification, different types of homes for different samantas etc. Thus the literature shows the increasing feudal penetration in the age.

(c) Economic

1. Kavya Mimansa tells us that timber industry was the main industry in Rashtrakuta kingdom. Then pepper was also exported.
2. Also because of the changing political and economic circumstances, we find ample evidences in the smriti literature allowing brahmans to adopt alternative occupations. Thus Parashar calls agriculture a normal occupation of brahman provided he himself didn't cultivate (this also tells us about the land relations of the age). The literature talks in great details about the land grants made to brahmans and prescribe various forms of concessions which should accompany such grants like tying the factors of production like labor and ox and plough with the grant.
3. Medhatithi tells us that S India was famous for its pearls.
4. Agnipurana mentions sword making industry in Sopara.
5. Literature was written on agriculture (krishiparashar), sculpture (shilpashastras), architecture (vastushastras), veterinary sciences (horse and elephant) reflecting economic priorities.

Regional Literature

Prakrit Literature

NBPW Phase

1. Earliest Jaina literature was Kalpasutra, Sutrakritanga and Acharanga - sutra.

Post Mauryan Age

1. It got a boost under the Satvahna kings as their official language was Prakrit. One Satvahna king Hala composed Gatha-Satta-Sai. It contains 700 verses written in Prakrit. 

Pali Literature

NBPW phase (Tripitaka)

1. They tell us of trade routes from Mathura to Taxila, and from Mathura to Ujjain and Gujarat coast.  
2. They tell us about the punch marked coins and also about their widespread use in transactions and in paying wages. 
3. They tell us about the village life - the three type of villages, the dominance of community, the presence of agriculture slaves and hired labor.
4. They also tell us about the tradition of oppressive kings and their purohits being expelled by people. But such occasions were rare and king was more powerful than ever before. 
5. These texts have been written in urban settings confirming the target audience of Buddhism. These texts reflect more closely the life in the republics. Their account of the origin of state is closer to the theory of social contract (by Rousseau) while the brahmanical literature is closer to the kingdoms and calls for divine origin of the king (and denies any social contract).

Tamil Literature

1. Tamil text Tolkkapiyam deals with grammar and poetics and Tirukkal with philosophy. 
2. Then there are epics Silappadikaran and Manimekalai. Silappadikaran was written by a Jaina scholar and is a love story of a dignitary preferring a courtesan over his wife. Manimekalai is the adventure story of his daughter. These epics throw light on the socio-economic life of the Sangam age. 

Sangam Literature

Political Reflections

1. It is a mix of myths as well as reflects realities. For instance the literature says that it was composed over a period of 9990 years under the patronage of 197 Pandya kings. Clearly this is too good to be true. On the other hand many of the names of the kings and events described in the literature can be reconciled against the inscriptions and other archaeological evidence.
2. The head of households were important, but a higher status was given to the velir or the clan chief and a still higher status was accorded to the bigger chiefs called ventar who were the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas.
3. It tells us about the 3 major states - Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras - their origin, important political events, their polity etc. The poets have tried to derive the ancestry from Mahabharata in order to increase glory and legitimacy of their ruling masters. Obviously its fake. It also tells us about some true historical events like how after losing his kingdom the first Chola ruler Karikala won a battle @ Venni against an alliance of 11 rulers and staged a comeback. Apart from the major states, the poets tell us about the various minor principalities who used to side with one major state or the other in times of war.
4. The literature tells us that some kings used to perform vedic sacrifices and praises them highly. This tells us of the attempt of the kings to increase their legitimacy via divine association and the values associated with a great king. The king was also supposed to be an upholder of the social order, literature, art etc and impartial while imparting justice because he was the highest court. He was supposed to ensure that brahmans lived well.
5. The literature is a reflection of the strong economic and administrative power of the state (such a large scale patronage to the poets wouldn't have been possible otherwise). The literature also tells us that the state used to actively promote agriculture, industry and commerce. However it also tells us that by the time of a ruler Nalliyakodan (275 AD) the era of kind, liberal donor kings was over which indicates that the power of state had declined by this time.
6. The sangam literature tells us that the king used to rule mainly with the assistance of his kin (family members) who were also very powerful. The practice of conjoint rule was also present. This is natural given the kin based nature of the sangam society. It tells us about the various feuds for grabbing power etc. The poets used to put the names of not just the king but multiple members of the royal family in their works which indicates the kin based nature of polity. 
7. Victory in battles, cattle raids and territorial expansion was another important source of royal legitimacy and a great king was supposed to continuously try to expand his kingdom. The literature speaks both in ill terms and in high terms (depending upon which side the poet was on) of cattle raids. It tells us that the battles over cattle raids between hill tribes and plain tribes were very common as the hill people used to raid plain tribes.

Cultural Reflections

1. In the earlier inscriptions we can see that the Tamil language was still in development phases. But by the Sangam age it had fully developed as can be seen in the literature.
2. The literature also uses many sanskrit words. This shows that the process of brahmanisation of the Sangam society was well underway. We can also get a good idea of the fusion process between the brahman and the dravidian societies from the literature.
3. They (specially the early sangam texts like Purnanuru and Narninai) also tell us about the life in megalithic societies. Thus they tell us in detail about the urn burial, cist burials, cremation etc. The earlier Sangam texts tell us that urn burial was prevalent among the Chera kings as well as the vellalas. 
4. It tells us about the many temples present in Madurai in that age. 

Social Reflections

1. It reflects a society which celebrates love and war. The goal of a hero should be to attain glory. Heroic death was greatly valued, memorial stones were raised for the dead heroes as their spirits were believed to inhabit the stones.
2. There are references to social classification based in kutis (clan based descent from early ages). Brahmanical tradition had not yet established firmly. There were Arashars (kings), Vaishiyars (traders), Velalars (farmers) and the brahmans. The brahmans held the highest level and they also occupied important posts like purohit in the royal courts and held great influence. The velalars were the rich farmers and influential in military and administration as well. The high military commanders were called Enadi. Interestingly Sangam literature refers to many occupations but doesn't refer directly to any varna based ordering.
3. There are references to wide range of economic activities practiced by women including agriculture, cloth making, fisheries etc. This indicates their better position in the society. It tells us that in a battle between the Cheras and the Cholas, both kings were killed. Their queens committed sati. Thus sati was prevalent. The literature tells us about the practice of kannagi worship i.e. worshipping a chaste wife and thus tells us how the society thought of a woman role in her life (she was thus supposed to be completely subservient to her husband). 
4. In the rural society there used to be an institution of manram to take care of the socio-cultural and religious activities. It used to take care of festivals, entertainment venues etc. These later developed into the institution of sabha.

Economic Reflections

1. The literature tells us that the state used to actively promote agriculture, industry and commerce. The state had a sound financial position. Another major source of income of the state was war booty.
2. The literature tells us that agriculture was the mainstay of the economy. But foreign trade too played a vital role in the economy. It tells us that Puhar was a major international port and due to brisk international trade it had accumulated a lot of wealth and influence. Other important ports were Shaliyur / Kottayam / Alagankulam under Pandyas and Bandar under Cheras.

(b)Foreign Accounts

Greek Accounts

1. Alexander left detailed historical and geographical accounts of his invasion. This helps us in understanding the geography of the age and also clearly build Indian chronology. They also tell us in detail about the social conditions like sati, sale of girls by poor parents.    
2. Justin tells us about the accession of CGM when he overran Indus. The literature also frequently mentions the autonomous towns in NW indicating the continuation of the gana sanghas.
3. Herodotus works have some useful information about India but it also has many myths. Similarly much of Tisius' work is just full of myths.
4. Being foreigners their works were useful because they gave importance to some aspects of Indian life which Indians used to overlook. But their writings obviously suffer from their lack of knowledge and understanding about India. Often what they had seen with their own eyes is believable but rest of it is just trash.
5. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea tells us about various Indian ports (like Naur, Tondi, Muchiri, Nelsida), the imports & exports, other cities and the economic life in general and thus is very useful under the Satvahnas and the Sangam chiefs.

Megasthenes   

(a) Politics 

1. He tells us that PP's administration was divided into 6 committees of 5 members each looking after registration of births and deaths; registration of foreigners; regulating weights and measures; sanitation; collection of tolls; and collection of excise.  
2. He tells us that Pandyas were ruled by a woman. 

(b) Military

1. He tells us that CGM's army was administered by 6 committees of 5 members each looking after infantry; cavalry; chariots; elephants; navy; and transport.  
2. He indicates soldiers as one of the 7 'castes' which indicates their importance in the society and the presence of a large standing army.

(c) Economy

1. On taxation, he tells us that for tax assessment, land was measured as in Egypt and the state officials also monitored the irrigation channels for the use of water.  
2. He talks about trade with Pandyas in South from where pearls were imported. 

(d) Culture

1. He talks about a magnificent palace of CGM in PP remains of which have been found in Kumrahar (Patna). It was an 80 pillared palace but not as magnificent as described by Megasthenes.   

(e) Society

1. He talks about existence of 7 castes in India - Philosophers, Peasants, Shepherds, Councillors, Warriors, Supervisors, Artisans and craftsmen.
2. He says slavery was absent from India. But probably he couldn't distinguish between the slaves and the shudras.  
3. He talks about female bodyguards of CGM and female accountants in state service. 

Roman Accounts

Natural History (by Pliny)   

1. It tells us about the strength of CGM's army (600K infantry, 30K cavalry, 9K elephants).  
2. On Satvahnas it tells us about their army (100K infantry, 2K cavalry and 1K elephants) and  about 30 walled towns in their kingdom.     
3. On the Indo-Roman trade, he complains that Rome was being drained of her wealth due to the trade. He also tells us about the ships in the Sangam age where he says Indian ships were 75 tonnes.
4. It tells us about the flora and fauna, the minerals, geography etc. of India.

Arab Accounts

Sulaiman (~850 AD)

1. He describes the powerful army of the Pala rulers and calls his army the biggest. 

Al-Masudi (915 AD)

1. He testifies the great power and prestige of the Pratihara rulers and the vastness of their empire. He said the king's army had 4 divisions, one fighting north vs Multan, one west with Muslims, one east with Palas and one S with Rashtrakutas. But Pratiharas had no access to sea => the had lost Gujarat to Rashtrakutas.   

Chinese Accounts

1. Even though works of Fa Hein, Huen Tsang and Ip Sing throw much light on life in their times, they suffer from the drawback that the writers were all buddhist monks. Thus they not only fail to take an unbiased view but also fail to write about secular aspects of life.
2. Fa Hein tells us that untouchables had to sound a clapper in the streets of the town so that people were warned of their presence and that if an untouchable came in close range, the caste person would have to perform a ritual. Huen Tsang states that butchers, fishermen, theatrical performers, executioners and scavengers were forced to live outside the city and their houses were marked so that they could be avoided.

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Author	Book	Subject
Magasthenes(G)	Indica	Valuable information on administration and socio-economic of Mauryan India
Ptolemy(G)	Geography	Geographical treatise on India in 2nd Century AD
Pliny(G)	Naturakus Historia	Accounts trade relations between Rome and India in 1st Century AD
Anonymous(G)	Periplus of the Erythrean Sea	Records personal voyage of Indian coasts in 80 A.D.
Fa-Hien(C)	Record of the Buddhist Countries	Records the Gupta Empire in the 5th Century AD
Hiuen Tsang(C)	Buddhist Records of the Western World	Describes the social, economic and religious conditions of India in the 5th and 7th Century AD.
I-tsing(C)	A record of the Buddhists religion as practised in India and Malay Archipelago.	Studies the Gupta period under Sri Gupta in the 7th Century AD.
Hwuili(C)	Life of Hiuen Tsang	Accounts Hiuen Tsang's travel in India.

G-Greek,C-Chinese